Title page 1

Contents 6

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Executive summary 10

1. Overview 13

PISA 2022 in context: Performance, equity and learning conditions 13

Digital education: Consolidating access and strengthening pedagogical integration 14

School disciplinary climate and safety: Relational strengths and behavioural challenges 14

Policy considerations in relation to resources and governance: Balancing autonomy with coherence and implementation capacity 15

A system at a crossroads 16

2. Introduction and context 17

Purpose of the review 18

Sweden's education system and recent policy developments 19

Methodology 20

Sweden's performance in PISA 2012-2022 21

Closing remarks and structure of the report 28

References 30

Notes 31

3. Digital education in Sweden: Insights from PISA 2022 and implications for student learning 32

Introduction: The impact of digital education on students' learning outcomes 33

Data sources and main indicators on the use of digital resources 33

Digital education and students' performance in Sweden: Insights from PISA 2022 35

Policy considerations 82

References 84

Notes 88

4. School disciplinary climate and safety in Sweden: Insights from PISA 2022 and implications for student learning 92

Introduction: The importance of school disciplinary climate and safety for student learning 93

School disciplinary climate and safety: How PISA assesses these items 95

Analysis of relevant PISA 2022 items on disciplinary climate and safety in Swedish schools 96

Policy considerations: Strengthening coherence and support in efforts to improve school climate 149

References 151

Notes 156

5. Policy considerations for digital learning and school disciplinary climate and safety based on governance context and resources 157

Introduction 158

Governance and resourcing context in Sweden 158

Policy considerations on governance arrangements and school resourcing policies to support digital education and school disciplinary climate and safety 166

References 181

Annex A. PISA 2022 multivariate analysis results 187

References 212

Annex B. Participants of the OECD online interviews with stakeholders 213

Annex C. The OECD review team 214

Tables 8

Table 2.1. Change in mathematics performance between 2022 and previous PISA cycles 23

Table 2.2. Change in reading performance between 2022 and previous PISA cycles 24

Table 2.3. Change in science performance between 2022 and previous PISA cycles 25

Table 2.4. PISA performance of immigrant and non-immigrant students, 2012 through 2022 27

Table 3.1. Availability of digital resources at school (2022) 36

Table 3.2. Frequency of using different digital resources at school (2022) 37

Table 3.3. Gender differences in the association between the quality of access to ICT and performance (2022) 43

Table 3.4. Gender differences in the association between students' behaviours and feelings when using digital devices and performance (2022) 70

Table 3.5. Socio-economic differences in the association between students' behaviours and feelings when using digital devices and performance (2022) 70

Table 4.1. Items with statistically significant gender differences in mathematics performance 100

Table 4.2. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 100

Table 4.3. Items with statistically significant gender differences in mathematics performance 106

Table 4.4. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 106

Table 4.5. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 114

Table 4.6. Items with statistically significant gender differences in mathematics performance 118

Table 4.7. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance depending on student migrant background 123

Table 4.8. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 127

Table 4.9. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 141

Table 4.10. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among school locations 142

Table 4.11. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance among socio-economic groups 146

Table 4.12. Items with statistically significant differences in mathematics performance depending on student migrant background 146

Figures 7

Figure 2.1. PISA mathematics performance trends in Sweden and the OECD 22

Figure 2.2. PISA reading performance trends in Sweden and the OECD 23

Figure 2.3. PISA science performance trends in Sweden and the OECD 24

Figure 2.4. Strength of the relationship between academic performance and socio-economic status 25

Figure 2.5. Mean PISA performance by gender, from 2012 through 2022 26

Figure 3.1. Index of ICT availability at school and students' performance (2022) 38

Figure 3.2. Index of ICT availability outside school and students' performance (2022) 39

Figure 3.3. Access to and quality of ICT resources at school (2022) 41

Figure 3.4. Index of the quality of access to ICT and students' performance (2022) 42

Figure 3.5. Time spent using digital resources for learning and leisure per day (2022) 45

Figure 3.6. Time spent using digital resources for learning at school and students' performance (2022) 46

Figure 3.7. Time spent using digital resources for learning at school (2022) 47

Figure 3.8. Time spent using digital resources for learning before and after school and students' performance (2022) 48

Figure 3.9. Time spent for leisure using digital resources at school and students' performance (2022) 49

Figure 3.10. Frequency of ICT use in specific subjects (2022) 51

Figure 3.11. Index of subject-related ICT use during lessons and students' performance in Sweden (all subjects) (2022) 52

Figure 3.12. ICT use during mathematics lessons and students' mathematics performance (2022) 53

Figure 3.13. Use of ICT in enquiry-based learning activities (2022) 55

Figure 3.14. Index of ICT use in enquiry-based learning activities and students' performance (2022) 56

Figure 3.15. Use of ICT in enquiry-based learning activities and students' performance (2022) 57

Figure 3.16. Index of support or feedback via ICT and students' performance (2022) 58

Figure 3.17. Digital distractions and students' performance (2022) 60

Figure 3.18. Index of the use of ICT for school activities outside of the classroom and students' performance (2022) 62

Figure 3.19. Index of students' self-efficacy in digital competencies and performance (2022) 64

Figure 3.20. Index of students' practices regarding online information and performance (2022) 66

Figure 3.21. Students' behaviours and feelings when using digital devices (2022) 68

Figure 3.22. Students' behaviours and feelings when using digital devices and performance (2022) 69

Figure 3.23. Time spent on digital leisure activities during a typical weekday (2022) 74

Figure 3.24. Index of the frequency of (leisure) ICT activity during weekdays and students' performance (2022) 75

Figure 3.25. Lack of or inadequate digital resources and students' performance (2022) 77

Figure 3.26. Selected school policies on ICT and students' performance (2022) 81

Figure 4.1. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of disciplinary climate 99

Figure 4.2. Trends PISA 2012 and PISA 2022: Disciplinary climate 103

Figure 4.3. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of exposure to bullying 105

Figure 4.4. Trends PISA 2012 and PISA 2022: Exposure to bullying 108

Figure 4.5. Feeling safe at school 111

Figure 4.6. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of school safety risks 113

Figure 4.7. School safety risks 116

Figure 4.8. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of sense of belonging 117

Figure 4.9. Trends PISA 2012 and PISA 2022: Sense of belonging 120

Figure 4.10. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of quality of student-teacher relationships 122

Figure 4.11. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of teacher support in mathematics 126

Figure 4.12. Trends PISA 2012 and PISA 2022: Teacher support in mathematics 129

Figure 4.13. Change in mathematics performance when students report that they skipped a whole day or some classes during the last two full... 131

Figure 4.14. PISA trends in student absenteeism 133

Figure 4.15. Change in mathematics performance when students report that they arrived late for school during the last two full weeks of school 135

Figure 4.16. PISA trends: Late arrivals 138

Figure 4.17. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of student-related factors affecting school climate 140

Figure 4.18. Student-related factors affecting school climate 143

Figure 4.19. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of negative school climate 145

Figure 5.1. Policy considerations on digital education and school disciplinary climate and safety 167

Boxes 9

Box 3.1. Funding mechanisms to promote equity in the quality of schools' digital infrastructure 43

Box 3.2. Australia: Promoting innovative digital literacy projects through school grants 64

Box 3.3. International examples of guidelines for managing screen time for children 71

Box 3.4. Promoting teachers' peer learning on the effective use of digital technologies 79

Box 3.5. Wales (United Kingdom): The Digital Professional Learning Journey 82

Box 4.1. Australia: Strengthening classroom management to reduce noise and disorder through targeted teacher development 102

Box 4.2. Ireland: Strengthening student well-being through a whole-school approach to bullying prevention 107

Box 4.3. Portugal's Escola Segura Programme: Strengthening physical safety in and around schools 110

Box 4.4. Ontario's (Canada) whole-school approach to reducing violence 115

Box 4.5. Poland: Strengthening students' sense of belonging and well-being 119

Box 4.6. Estonia: A holistic approach to strengthening student-teacher relationships 124

Box 4.7. Singapore's Teacher Growth Model: Sustaining high levels of teacher support 128

Box 4.8. Portugal: A locally driven approach to reduce absenteeism and strengthen student engagement 133

Box 4.9. Ireland: Supporting attendance and punctuality 136

Box 4.10. Singapore: Maintaining positive school climate through the holistic discipline model 142

Box 4.11. United Kingdom: Supporting schools to tackle negative school climate 147

Box 5.1. Estonia: Systematic development of teachers' digital competence 168

Box 5.2. Korea: Digital citizenship and healthy device use 170

Box 5.3. Ireland: Digital Learning Planning Guidelines for Schools 171

Box 5.4. Portugal: The "Escola Digital" (Digital School) programme 173

Box 5.5. Fostering classroom management skills through collaborative professional learning in Japan and Singapore 175

Box 5.6. Peer learning networks to build school leaders' capacity to enhance school disciplinary climate in the United States 177

Box 5.7. Finland: Multi-professional student welfare services 178

Box 5.8. Australia: Whole-School Positive Behaviour Support (PBS) frameworks 180

Annex Tables 187

Annex Table 3.A.1. ICT availability at school and mathematics performance 187

Annex Table 3.A.2. ICT availability outside school and mathematics performance 188

Annex Table 3.A.3. Quality of access to ICT and mathematics performance 189

Annex Table 3.A.4. Subject-related ICT use during lessons and mathematics performance 190

Annex Table 3.A.5. Support or feedback via ICT and mathematics performance 191

Annex Table 3.A.6a. Digital distractions and mathematics performance 192

Annex Table 3.A.6b. Digital distractions and mathematics performance 193

Annex Table 3.A.7. Use of ICT for school activities outside of the classroom and mathematics performance 194

Annex Table 3.A.8. Self-efficacy in digital competencies and mathematics performance 195

Annex Table 3.A.9. Students' practices regarding online information and mathematics performance 196

Annex Table 3.A.10a. ICT activity on weekdays and mathematics performance 197

Annex Table 3.A.10b. ICT activity on weekends and mathematics performance 198

Annex Table 3.A.11. Teachers' preparedness for digital learning and students' mathematics performance 199

Annex Table 4.A.1. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of disciplinary climate 200

Annex Table 4.A.2. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of exposure to bullying 201

Annex Table 4.A.3. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of feeling safe at school 202

Annex Table 4.A.4. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of school safety risks 203

Annex Table 4.A.5. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of sense of belonging 204

Annex Table 4.A.6. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of quality of student-teacher relationships 205

Annex Table 4.A.7. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of teacher support in mathematics 206

Annex Table 4.A.8a. Change in mathematics performance when students skipped at least one whole school day in the last two full weeks of school 207

Annex Table 4.A.8b. Change in mathematics performance when students skipped at least some classes in the last two full weeks of school 208

Annex Table 4.A.9. Change in mathematics performance when students arrived late for school at least once in the last two full weeks of school 209

Annex Table 4.A.10. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of student-related factors affecting school climate 210

Annex Table 4.A.11. Change in mathematics performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of negative school climate 211