Title page 1

Contents 3

Summary 2

Introduction 4

Background and Legal Framework 5

Constitutional Framework 6

Historical Practice 7

Competing Constitutional Interpretations 10

The Executive Branch's 2020 Claim to Exclusive Treaty Withdrawal Power 12

Congressional Rejection of Exclusive Presidential Withdrawal Power in Section 1250A of the 2024 NDAA 14

Justiciability Issues in Enforcing Section 1250A 15

Political Question Doctrine 15

Standing 20

Congressional Standing 21

Standing Under Other NATO-Related Statutes 23

Constitutional Analysis of Section 1250A 25

The Supreme Court's Youngstown Framework for Separation of Powers Cases 25

Zivotofsky ex rel. Zivotofsky v. Kerry 26

Trump v. United States 29

Possible Application of Supreme Court Jurisprudence to Section 1250A 30

Constitutional Text and Structure 30

Judicial Precedent 31

Historical Practice 34

Considerations for Congress 35

Author Information 38

Acknowledgments 38

Disclaimer 38