Executive summary  7

List of abbreviations  9

List of units  12

1 Introduction  14

2 Alternative Fuels  16

2.1 Categorisation of alternative fuels  16

2.2 Production pathway selection  17

3 Deployment trajectories  19

3.1 Current deployment  19

3.2 Deployment trajectories  21

4 Production Pathways  29

4.1 Existing production infrastructure  29

4.2 Feedstocks for thermochemical production pathways  31

4.3 Biomethane via gasification and methanation  35

4.4 E-methane via methanation  57

4.5 Synthetic paraffinic kerosene via gasification and Fischer-Tropsch  61

4.6 Synthesised kerosene with aromatics derived by alkylation of light aromatics from non-petroleum sources  67

4.7 Synthetic paraffinic kerosene by alcohol-to-jet  73

4.8 Synthetic paraffinic kerosene with aromatics by alcohol-to-jet  79

4.9 Sustainable aviation fuel or diesel via pyrolysis  81

4.10 Sustainable aviation fuel or Diesel via Hydrothermal Liquefaction  88

4.11 e-Diesel via Fischer-Tropsch  93

4.12 Green Ammonia  98

4.13 Further Considerations  104

5 Existing Regulatory Measures  107

6 Risk to Human Health  110

6.1 Key pollutants  111

6.2 Comparison of fuels  123

6.3 Summary  125

7 Physicochemical Properties  126

7.1 Properties reported  126

7.2 Biomethane and e-Methane  127

7.3 Sustainable aviation fuel  129

7.4 Synthetic diesel (FT-diesel and e-diesel)  133

7.5 Ammonia  135

7.6 Impact of property variations on combustion emissions  136

8 Incident Management  138

8.1 Introduction  138

8.2 Relevance of physicochemical properties to Incident Management operations  139

8.3 Ammonia  145

8.4 Biomethane and e-methane  149

8.5 Synthetic liquid light oils and sustainable aviation fuel  154

8.6 Considerations for incident management from the storage of feedstocks  161

8.7 Summary  162

9 Summary  163

10 References  165

11 Appendix  188

11.1 UK REACH  188

11.2 Industrial Emissions Directive (2010)  189

11.3 Environmental Permitting Regulations 2016  190

11.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme Order 2020  191

11.5 Health and Safety at Work Act 1974  192

11.6 The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 2015  193

11.7 Control of Pollution (Oil Storage) (England) Regulations 2001  195

11.8 The Petroleum (Consolidation) Regulations 2014  196

11.9 The Alternative Fuel Labelling and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Regulations 2019  198

11.10 The Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulations 2017  199

11.11 The Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations 2009  200