LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  5

1. INTRODUCTION  7

1.1. Purpose of this paper  7

1.2. Context and policy background  7

1.3. Analytical approach  7

1.4. Structure of the paper  7

2. THE GROWTH AND CONSOLIDATION OF LIVE-CONTENT PIRACY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION  9

2.1. Live-Content Piracy in the EU: Market Growth, Enforcement Gaps and National Evidence  9

2.2. Technological tools for combating illegal live streaming  15

3. THE EU LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON ONLINE PIRACY AND THE COMMISSION'S RECOMMENDATION  17

3.1. The EU Legal Framework before the Commission Recommendation  17

3.2. The Parliament Resolution and the Commission Recommendation  20

4. NATIONAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS: ENFORCEMENT MEASURES AND CASE LAW  24

4.1. Italy: a centralised framework for live-content anti-piracy enforcement  24

4.2. Greece: The Powers of EDPPI  29

4.3. France: judicial blocking with ARCOM coordination  30

4.4. Germany: a cautious and multi-layered framework for live-content anti-piracy enforcement  33

4.5. Spain: a multi-track framework for live-content anti-piracy enforcement  35

4.6. The Netherlands: judicial injunctions and intermediary cooperation against live-content piracy  37

4.7. Belgium: a hybrid judicial-administrative enforcement model  39

4.8. National divergence and the limits of the Recommendation approach  41

5. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AND PERSISTENT FRAGMENTATION IN EU ENFORCEMENT (2021–2026)  44

6. FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS  47

REFERENCES  49