목차
Title page 1
Contents 8
Preface 4
Foreword 6
Acknowledgements 7
Abbreviations and acronyms 11
Executive summary 13
1. Key factors driving the circular economy in cities and regions in the European Union 16
Defining the circular economy in cities and regions 17
Key factors driving the circular economy in EU cities and regions 22
References 50
Notes 65
2. The state of the art of the circular economy in cities and regions in the EU 67
Setting the scene: levels of advancement, goals and responsibilities 68
Leveraging tools for the circular economy 70
Clustering cities and regions 79
Strategy-driven cities and regions 80
Innovation-driven cities and regions 90
Partnership-driven cities and regions 92
References 95
Notes 98
3. Multi-level governance of the circular economy: challenges and opportunities in cities and regions 99
Introduction 100
Roles and responsibilities: Define who does what and lead by example 107
Strategic vision: Develop a circular economy strategy with clear goals and actions 110
Awareness and transparency: Promote a circular economy culture and enhance trust 113
Co-ordination: Implement effective multi-level governance 116
Policy coherence: Foster systems thinking 119
Stakeholder engagement: Facilitate collaboration among public, private and non-profit actors 122
Appropriate scale: Adopt a functional approach 126
Regulation: Identify the regulatory instruments that need to be adapted to foster the transition to the circular economy 130
Financing: Help mobilise financial resources and allocate them efficiently 134
Capacity building: Adapt human and technical resources to the challenges at hand 138
Innovation: Support business development 141
Data and assessment: Generate an information system and assess results 144
References 148
4. A territorial approach to the circular economy 151
Uptake of EU policy instruments for the circular economy by cities and regions 153
Challenges for a territorial approach to the circular economy 158
The 3Ps framework for a territorial approach to the circular economy 163
References 168
Notes 170
Annex A. List of respondents to the OECD Survey: The Circular Economy in Cities and Regions in the European Union (EU) 172
Tables 10
Table 1.1. Circular sectors and value chains 21
Table 1.2. Estimated environmental value and impacts of inaction on the circular economy 34
Table 1.3. Estimated economic value and impacts of inaction on the circular economy 39
Table 1.4. Estimated technological value and consequences of inaction on the circular economy 42
Table 1.5. Estimated governance value and consequences of inaction on the circular economy 45
Table 1.6. Estimated social value and consequences of inaction on the circular economy 49
Table 2.1. Sectoral legal instruments in five product chains selected by the Netherlands' National Circular Economy Programme 2023-2030 71
Table 2.2. Typology of economic instruments for a circular economy 76
Table 2.3. Clustering cities and regions according to similar features 79
Table 2.4. Strategy-driven surveyed cities and regions 80
Table 2.5. Circular economy initiatives, perceived level of advancement, and dedicated budget, 2015-2025 84
Table 2.6. Innovation-driven surveyed cities and regions 91
Table 2.7. Partnership-driven surveyed cities and regions 93
Table 3.1. List of policy recommendations for cities and regions in the EU 103
Table 3.2. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Roles and responsibilities 107
Table 3.3. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Strategic vision 110
Table 3.4. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Awareness and transparency 113
Table 3.5. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Co-ordination 116
Table 3.6. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Policy coherence 119
Table 3.7. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Stakeholder engagement 122
Table 3.8. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Appropriate scale 126
Table 3.9. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Regulation 130
Table 3.10. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Financing 134
Table 3.11. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Capacity building 138
Table 3.12. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Innovation 141
Table 3.13. How are surveyed cities and regions doing? Data and assessment 144
Table 4.1. The EU Circular Economy Monitoring Framework (CEMF) and its indicators 154
Figures 9
Figure 1.1. Circular economy actions to close loops 17
Figure 1.2. Five key factors driving the circular economy 22
Figure 1.3. Drivers to transition from a linear to a circular economy in cities and regions 23
Figure 1.4. Map of surveyed cities and regions 24
Figure 1.5. Overview of selected costs of inaction and co-benefits of the circular economy 25
Figure 1.6. Circular material use rate trend in the EU-27 2004-2023 27
Figure 1.7. Trend of non-energy material productivity by global region, 2010-2022 28
Figure 1.8. Trends in domestic material consumption by global region, 2010-2022 29
Figure 1.9. Domestic material consumption per unit of GDP in OECD countries, 2010-2022 29
Figure 1.10. Municipal waste per capita trends in large OECD regions (TL2 level), 2016-2020 30
Figure 1.11. Amount of municipal waste generation by GDP per capita in large OECD regions 31
Figure 1.12. Municipal waste recovery rates in large OECD regions, 2021 32
Figure 1.13. Share of municipal waste recovered by GDP per capita in large regions 32
Figure 1.14. Distance to travel for TL2 regions in SDG 12 on responsible consumption 33
Figure 1.15. Raw material consumption by material categories in the EU-27, 2000-2023 36
Figure 1.16. Patents related to recycling and secondary raw materials, 2000-2020 41
Figure 1.17. Income losses after forced shifts from high-emission to low-emission sectors 47
Figure 2.1. Share of surveyed cities and regions by stage of the circular economy transition 68
Figure 2.2. Share of surveyed cities and regions by circular economy goals 69
Figure 2.3. Share of surveyed cities and regions by type of co-ordination mechanisms 70
Figure 2.4. Timeline of relevant EU regulations on circular economy initiatives 71
Figure 2.5. Number of OECD countries with economic instruments for the circular economy, 1975-2025 75
Figure 2.6. Share of surveyed cities and regions by type of financial and economic measure 76
Figure 2.7. Share of surveyed cities and regions including circular criteria into procurement and by sector 78
Figure 2.8. Share of surveyed cities and regions with circular economy initiatives in place 81
Figure 2.9. Share of surveyed cities and regions with a dedicated budget for the circular economy 81
Figure 2.10. Share of surveyed cities and regions by type of stakeholder engagement mechanism 82
Figure 2.11. Share of surveyed cities and regions prioritising sectors in circular economy strategies 87
Figure 2.12. Share of surveyed cities and regions promoting capacity building for the circular economy 89
Figure 2.13. Share of surveyed cities and regions monitoring progress and impacts of circular economy strategies 90
Figure 2.14. Share of surveyed cities and regions using pilots and experimentations to foster the circular economy transition 91
Figure 2.15. Map of the Pilots and Fellows of the Circular Cities and Regions Initiative (CCRI) 94
Figure 3.1. Share of surveyed cities and regions by perceived level of implementation of the 12 dimensions of the OECD Checklist for Action 100
Figure 3.2. Visualisation of the OECD Checklist for Action 101
Figure 3.3. Visualisation of the OECD scoreboard results 102
Figure 4.1. The OECD 3Ps framework: People and firms, Policies and Places 152
Figure 4.2. Share of surveyed cities and regions considering EC policies in their circular economy strategies 153
Figure 4.3. Share of surveyed cities and regions influenced by EC Directives for circular economy initiatives 155
Figure 4.4. Share of surveyed cities and regions leveraging EU circular economy initiatives 156
Figure 4.5. Innovation and capacity building programmes in surveyed cities and regions 158
Figure 4.6. Challenges and obstacles to accessing EU funds in surveyed cities and regions 161
Figure 4.7. Recommendations for a territorial approach to the circular economy 163
Boxes 10
Box 1.1. The 10 R-strategies of the circular economy 18
Box 1.2. OECD Survey: The Circular Economy in Cities and Regions in the European Union (EU) 23
Box 1.3. The micro and macroeconomics of the circular economy 35
Box 1.4. Losers and winners in green jobs 46
Box 2.1. Timeline of relevant EU regulation on the circular economy 72
Box 2.2. Typology of economic instruments for a circular economy 76
Box 2.3. Circular Cities and Regions Initiative (CCRI) 93
Box 3.1. The OECD Checklist for Action 101
Box 4.1. The 3Ps framework: An integrated approach to accelerate the circular economy in cities and regions 152
Box 4.2. Key funding programmes supporting the transition to a circular economy in the EU 157
Box 4.3. The EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) and the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) 160
Appendix Tables 10
Table A A.1. List of respondents to OECD Survey: The Circular Economy in Cities and Regions in the European Union (EU) 172
