Introduction and Historical Overview 1
Origins and Combat History of the Korean People's Army (KPA), 1948–1953 2
The Post–Korean War KPA, 1953–1991 3
Shift to Asymmetric Capabilities, 1991–Present 4
National Military Overview 7
Threat Perceptions 8
National Security Strategy 9
Political Stability 11
External Relations 12
Defense Budget 13
Military Doctrine and Strategy 14
Perceptions of Modern Conflict 14
Military and Security Leadership 14
National Military Command and Control 17
Nuclear Command and Control 18
Core North Korean Military Capabilities 19
Nuclear Weapons and Ballistic Missiles 19
Program History and Pathway to Weapon Development 19
Ballistic Missile Force 22
Biological and Chemical Weapons 28
Offensive Conventional Systems 28
National Defense 30
Underground Facilities 30
Air Defense 31
Coastal Defense 32
Electronic Warfare 32
Space/Counterspace 32
Cyberspace 33
Computer Network Attack and Intimidation 33
Cyber-Enabled Propaganda 33
Intelligence Collection 34
Currency Generation 34
Denial and Deception 34
Logistics and Sustainment 35
Human Capital 36
Outlook: Targeted Investments in Select Military Capabilities 38
Appendix A: Strategic Force 40
Appendix B: Ground Forces 42
Appendix C: Air and Air Defense Forces 45
Appendix D: Navy 48
Appendix E: Special Operations Forces 52
Appendix F: Reserve and Paramilitary Forces 55
Appendix G: Intelligence Services 57
Appendix H: Defense Industry and the Energy Sector 60
Appendix I: Arms Sales 67
Acronyms 71