LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 5
LIST OF FIGURES 8
LIST OF TABLES 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9
INTRODUCTION 15
 Study objectives 16
 Definitions and Methodology 16
 Structure of the report 17
1. THE STATE OF PLAY OF WOMEN’S HEALTH GAP 19
 1.1. The role of science in addressing health disparities 23
 1.2. Health data gaps and women’s health 25
 1.3. Gender inequalities and barriers in access to health care 28
 1.4. State of play in legislation 29
2. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN FREQUENT HEALTH CONDITIONS 33
 2.1. Sex and Gender Differences in Prevalence and Presentation 33
 2.1.1. Cardiovascular Disease 35
 2.1.2. Cancer 39
 2.1.3. Osteoporosis 40
 2.1.4. Depression 42
 2.1.5. Autoimmune diseases 45
 2.2. Androcentrism in medical practice 47
 2.3. Sex and Gender Differences in Diagnosis and Treatment 48
 2.3.1. Cardiovascular Disease 49
 2.3.2. Cancer 51
 2.3.3. Osteoporosis 52
 2.3.4. Depression 54
 2.3.5. Autoimmune diseases 55
3. THE GENDER DATA GAP IN RESEARCH AND CLINICAL TRIALS 57
 3.1. Androcentrism in Medical Research 58
 3.2. Clinical Trials 59
 3.3. Clinical Trials’ Regulatory Framework in the European Union 62
4. MEDICAL APPROACH TO FEMALE-SPECIFIC CONDITIONS 65
 4.1. Neglected Bodies, Neglected Conditions 65
 4.1.1. Pregnancy and Breastfeeding 66
 4.1.2. Menopause 68
 4.1.3. Endometriosis: The ‘Missed Disease’ 71
 4.1.4. Uterine Fibroids: The Silent Burden 73
 4.1.5. Urogynaecological Conditions 75
 4.1.6. Sexually Transmitted Infections and Neglected Tropical Diseases 77
 4.2. Obstetric and Gynaecological Violence 80
 4.3. Barriers to Diagnosis and Treatment 85
5. GENDER INEQUALITIES IN ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE SERVICES 88
 5.1. Most significant barriers to health care 90
 5.2. Particularly vulnerable groups in relation to access to health care services 94
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 98
 6.1. Recommendations on Data Collection and Clinical Trials 98
 6.2. Recommendations on Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) 100
 6.3. Recommendations on Endometriosis 101
 6.4. Recommendations on Uterine Fibroids 102
 6.5. Recommendations on vulnerable populations regarding particular communicable diseases (including Sexually Transmitted Infections and Neglected Tropical Diseases) 102
 6.6. Recommendations on Urological and Urogynaecological Disorders 102
 6.7. Recommendations on Obstetric and Gynaecological Violence 103
 6.8. Recommendations on Diagnosis and Treatment 103
 6.9. Recommendations on Education and Training 105
 6.10. Recommendations on Broader Policies 106
 6.11. Recommendations on Networks and Good Practices 107
 6.12. Concluding Remarks 108
REFERENCES 110
ANNEX 1: EU-FUNDED PROJECTS TO PROMOTE WOMEN’S HEALTH 124
ANNEX 2: CONTRACEPTION POLICY ATLAS 2023 129