EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5

ABBREVIATIONS 9

INTRODUCTION: SCOPE & METHODOLOGY 11

POLICY BACKGROUND:A LONG TALE OF REVISIONS 13

3.1. Intergovernmentalism 17

3.2. Worst Regulation 18

3.3. Unpacking Effectiveness and the Balance Metaphor 21

FORCED REMOVAL AND MUTUAL RECOGNITION 23

DETENTION 26

OBLIGATION TO COOPERATE 30

INEFFECTIVE REMEDIES AND INJUSTICE 33

DETECTION & SECURITY RISKS 35

EXTERNALISATION 36

9.1. Return Hubs 36

9.2. Readmission 51

9.3. Unsafe Countries 54

ALTERNATIVES TO RETURNS 59

CONCLUSIONS 63

REFERENCES 67