Title page 1

Contents 4

1. Introduction 7

1.1. Historical context, relevance, and international frameworks 7

1.2. Definitions and scope 11

2. Part I: State of play in the EU and at the national level 13

2.1. EU legislation, policies and initiatives 13

2.2. Core principles of minors' protection online 14

2.2.1. Digital and media literacy, inclusion, and education 15

2.2.2. Data protection and privacy 15

2.2.3. Online safety and harm prevention 17

2.2.4. Age-appropriate design and platform responsibility 18

2.2.5. Mental health and digital well-being 19

2.3. Online risks and harms 20

2.4. The EU rights-based approach: balancing protection, privacy and freedom of speech 22

2.5. National and regional approaches: A comparative overview 23

2.5.1. Regulatory-centred systems 23

2.5.2. Education-focused systems 24

2.5.3. Hybrid approach systems 25

2.5.4. Multi-level governance and distribution of competences 25

2.6. Role and competences of Local and Regional Authorities (LRAs) 27

2.7. Emerging trends and challenges 29

2.7.1. Technological developments 29

2.7.2. Shifting digital behaviours and usage patterns 30

2.7.3. Anticipated regulatory and enforcement challenges 32

2.7.4. Growing inequalities in online protection and literacy 32

2.7.5. The evolving tension between protection and autonomy 33

2.7.6. Implications for LRAs 34

2.7.7. Concluding outlook 34

3. Part II: The local and regional dimension: good practice and future trends 35

3.1. Cyberbullying and online abuse 35

3.2. Exposure to harmful content and manipulative practices 37

3.3. Sexual exploitation and grooming 39

3.4. Privacy violations and data misuse 41

3.5. Online radicalisation 42

3.6. Digital addiction and digital divide 44

4. Part III: Possible future scenarios, recommendations for action and conclusions 47

4.1. Future scenarios and risks for minors' protection in the digital sphere 47

4.2. Exploring policy implications 53

4.3. Policy recommendations for minors' protection online 60

4.3.1. Evidence-based recommendations from the current state of play 60

4.3.2. Recommendations for forward-looking policies 65

Annex I - Bibliography 69

Annex II - EU country factsheets on the protection of minors in the digital sphere 78

Tables 10

Table 1. Challenges in the protection of minors in the digital sphere 10

Table 2. Challenges for minors' protection in the digital sphere 26

Table 3. Risk-scenarios mapping 49

Table 4. Clustered exacerbation of the risks and their policy implications 54

Boxes 16

Box 1. The UK's Age-Appropriate Design Code 16