List of Selected Abbreviations 4

Executive Summary 5

Introduction 7

Section 1: Strategic Context 10

Section 2: Models of European Military Space-capability Development 12

Baseline 12

Burden-sharing 12

Autonomy 12

Section 3: Capability Assessment and Measures to Increase Europe’s Military

Autonomy in Space 13

Satellite Communications 13

Positioning, Navigation and Timing 14

Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance 15

Space-based Early Warning 17

Launch 19

Space Situational Awareness 21

Counterspace 22

Section 4: Costs and Feasibility 25

Baseline Expenditure 25

Burden-sharing and Autonomous Models’ Incremental Costs 25

Timeline Feasibility 27

Section 5: Policy Choices for European Governments 28

Relationship with the US in the Space Domain 28

Level of Ambition 28

Level and Form of Cooperation and Coordination Within Europe 28

Industrial Strategy 30

Notes 31