Title page 1

Contents 3

Summary 2

Introduction 4

Background on Seabed Mining 6

Proposed Seabed Mining Operations 8

Regulations for Deep-Seabed Mining in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 10

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the 1994 Agreement 10

International Seabed Authority 12

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act and Other Applicable U.S. Laws 16

Exploration Licenses Issued Under the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act 18

Pending Applications to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 19

Ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 23

ISA Seabed Mining Options for U.S. Companies 23

ISA Decisionmaking 25

Global Critical Minerals Marketplace and China's Dominance 26

Potential Marine Environmental Impacts of Seabed Mining 28

Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Disturbance 31

Resuspended Sediment and Buried Carbon 32

Noise Pollution 33

Concerns Associated with Ship Activity 34

Processing of Seabed Mineral Resources in the United States 34

Issues for Congress 37

Author Information 39

Disclaimer 39

Tables 3

Table 1. Types of Seabed Mineral Deposits in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 7

Figures 3

Figure 1. Illustration of High Seas and Exclusive Economic Zone Boundaries 6

Figure 2. Proposed Machinery and Technology for Collecting Seabed Minerals 8

Figure 3. Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) 13

Figure 4. Locations of China's Five Exploration Contracts 27