About the Author vi

Acronyms and Abbreviations vi

Executive Summary 1

Introduction 1

The Challenge and Why This Matters 2

Concepts in Information Operations 3

Cyber Operations and Information Operations: Differentiating the Means from the Target 6

The Canadian Experience of Countering Foreign Information Operations 10

How Other Democracies Are Approaching the Problem 12

Implications for Canada 14

Conclusions 15

Works Cited 16