Title page 1

Contents 7

Preface 4

Acknowledgements 6

Reader's guide 10

Executive summary 16

1. The importance of early learning and development 18

Introduction 19

The early years as a critical window of opportunity and vulnerability 19

Early learning and development as strong predictors of later outcomes 21

The drivers of positive early learning and development 24

References 26

2. The design and implementation of the study 31

Introduction 32

The design and implementation of IELS 2025 32

What IELS 2025 can tell us 39

References 41

Notes 42

3. How five-year-olds are faring 43

Introduction 45

Average performance in early learning and development outcomes 45

Variation in early learning and development outcomes 48

Contextual factors influencing jurisdictions' performance in IELS 2025 53

Parent and teacher perspectives on children's skills 54

How dimensions of early learning and development relate to each other 56

References 59

Notes 60

4. Equity gaps in early learning and development 61

Introduction 63

Gender gaps in early learning and development 63

Socio-economic gaps in early learning and development 66

Migration and language gaps in early learning and development 71

References 77

Notes 79

5. Home environments and children's early learning and development 80

Introduction 82

Parental levels of education and household structure 82

Home learning environments and early learning and development 85

Parental involvement in the child's early education centre or school 93

References 95

Notes 96

6. Early childhood education and care and additional supports for children 97

Introduction 99

Participation in ECEC 99

Length of participation in ECEC and children's early learning and development 106

Additional supports for children experiencing early challenges 112

References 116

Notes 117

Annex A. Contextual indicators 119

Annex B. List of tables available online 123

Annex C. List of contributors 125

Table 3.1. Average scores in early learning and development outcomes 46

Table 3.2. Comparing average composite scores in early learning and development outcomes 47

Table 3.3. Correlations between assessed early learning and development outcomes and parent and teacher perceptions of children's skills 55

Table 3.4. How five-year-olds are faring: Chapter 3 figures 59

Table 4.1. Gender gaps in parent and teacher perceptions of children's skills 66

Table 4.2. Socio-economic gaps in parent and teacher perceptions of children's skills 69

Table 4.3. Gaps by immigration background in parent and teacher perceptions of children's skills 75

Table 4.4. Equity gaps in early learning and development: Chapter 4 figures 77

Table 5.1. Home environments and children's early learning and development: Chapter 5 figures 95

Table 6.1. Early childhood education and care and additional supports: Chapter 6 figures 115

Figure 1.1. Sensitive periods of brain development in early childhood 20

Figure 1.2. Environments and early learning and development outcomes in IELS 25

Figure 2.1. Dimensions and domains of early learning and development assessed in IELS 2025 35

Figure 2.2. The lead characters from the children's stories in the IELS 2025 direct assessments 38

Figure 3.1. Inequality in the distribution of early learning and development outcomes 49

Figure 3.2. Age differences in early learning and development between ages 5 and 6 51

Figure 3.3. Share of variation in early learning and development outcomes occurring between ECEC centres or schools 53

Figure 3.4. Proportion of young adults with tertiary education and average performance in foundational learning outcomes 54

Figure 3.5. Correlations between early learning and development outcomes 57

Figure 3.6. Early learning and development skill sets of young children 58

Figure 4.1. Gender gaps in early learning and development outcomes 65

Figure 4.2. Socio-economic gaps in early learning and development outcomes 68

Figure 4.3. Developmentally resilient five-year-olds 70

Figure 4.4. Children with an immigration background and children with another home language 73

Figure 4.5. Gaps in early learning and development outcomes by immigration background 74

Figure 4.6. Differences in early learning and development outcomes, by language spoken at home 76

Figure 5.1. Mother's level of education and early learning and development outcomes 84

Figure 5.2. Frequency of parent-child activities with a developmental focus 86

Figure 5.3. Home learning environment and children's early learning and development outcomes 87

Figure 5.4. Parent-child reading activities and children's early learning and development outcomes 90

Figure 5.5. Parent-child educational digital activities and children's early learning and development outcomes 92

Figure 5.6. Parental involvement in ECEC centres/schools and early learning and development outcomes 94

Figure 6.1. Starting age of participation in ECEC/school 105

Figure 6.2. Association between years in ECEC/school and five-year-olds' early learning and development outcomes 107

Figure 6.3. Association between earlier starting ages of attendance of ECEC/school and five-year-olds foundational learning domains 109

Figure 6.4. Variation in the association between years in ECEC/school and five-year-olds' foundational learning outcomes, by socio-economic background 111

Figure 6.5. Additional supports among different groups of children 115

Boxes 9

Box 6.1. An overview of the early education and care systems of the jurisdictions in IELS 2025 101

Table A A.1. Demographics and living conditions 119

Table A A.2. Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) systems 121

Table A B.1. Chapter 3. How five-year-olds are faring 123

Table A B.2. Chapter 4. Equity gaps in early learning and development 123

Table A B.3. Chapter 5. Home environments and early learning and development 124

Table A B.4. Chapter 6. Early childhood education and care, additional supports and early learning and development 124