vi Acknowledgements

vii Abstract

viii Executive summary

viii Exposure to fringe and radical content online

ix Content describing, depicting or advocating violence

x Sharing fringe and radical content

xi Frequency of and pathway to exposure

xi Access to fringe and radical groups

1 Introduction

3 Radicalisation and the online

environment

6 Method

6 Recruitment, sampling and weighting

7 Analysis

8 Limitations

9 Exposure to fringe and radical content online

11 Relationship between platform use and exposure to fringe and radical content describing, depicting or advocating violence

15 Types and aims of fringe and radical content seen online

18 Sharing fringe and radical content

20 Participation in fringe and radical groups

22 Changes between 2022 and 2024

22 Exposure to fringe and radical content online

26 Reported aim of the content and reasons for access

28 Sharing fringe and radical content

29 Participation in fringe and radical groups

32 Conclusion

35 References

38 Appendix A: Sample characteristics

44 Appendix B: Comparison with population data