Executive summary  5

Background  8

High concentration of mineral supply chains  8

Understanding traceability  9

Potential benefits of traceability for energy and economic security  10

Industry perspectives on traceability practices  12

Use of traceability as a policy instrument: State of play  21

Use by producing countries  23

Use by consuming countries  28

Challenges and barriers to adoption  31

Implementation costs  32

Inconsistent standards for technical infrastructure and data reporting  33

Transmission of information along the supply chain  35

Complex and geographically concentrated supply chains  37

Opportunities to enhance traceability for energy and economic security  39

Strengthen policy instruments that create incentives for collecting and sharing verified data across the supply chain  40

Provide financial support for traceability infrastructure  43

Collaborate at the international level to harmonise traceability standards  43

Enhance co-operation between upstream and downstream jurisdictions  45

Adopt a gradual and pragmatic approach focusing on less complex supply chains and core data elements  46

Annexes  49

Annex I.  49

Annex II.  52