Introduction 6

Section 1: The Complexities of Gold Mining in the Brazilian Amazon 7

Section 2: Illegal Gold Mining: A Security Poly-crisis 8

  Environmental Degradation and Human Costs 8

  Criminal Convergence 11

Section 3: Structural and Institutional Challenges 14

  Illicit Gold Mining and Its Socio-economic Root Causes 14

  Governance Challenges and Limited Institutional Operational Capacity 14

  The Perennial Challenge of Inter-agency Coordination 15

Section 4: From Challenges to Action: Brazil’s Intensified Response 17

  Moves Toward Multi-agency Approaches 17

  Strengthening the Transparency of Gold Supply Chains 17

  Brazil’s Regional Action 19

Outlook 21

Notes 23