Table of contents III

Table of frames VI

List of abbreviations XIII

Executive summary XVII

I. A brief history of the recognition of freedom of thought, conscience and religion in the Canadian legal system 1

  I.1. Evolution until its appearance in Canadian Law 1

    I.1.1. From the British Conquest to 1867 2

    I.1.2. From 1867, prior to the appearance of comprehensive rights instruments 4

  I.2. Factors that contributed to its subsequent evolution 7

II. Constitutional and legislative provisions 9

  II.1. Constitutional provisions 9

    II.1.1. Constitution Act, 1867 9

    II.1.2. Constitution Act, 1982 11

      II.1.2.1. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 11

      II.1.2.2. Rights of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada 13

  II.2. Legislative provisions 14

    II.2.1. Federal legislation 14

      II.2.1.1. Canadian Bill of Rights 14

      II.2.1.2. Canadian Human Rights Act 15

      II.2.1.3. Other legislation 18

        II.2.1.3.1. Civil Marriage Act 18

        II.2.1.3.2. Criminal Code 19

      II.2.2. Provincial and territorial legislation 20

        II.2.2.1. General fundamental rights legislation 20

        II.2.2.2. Antidiscrimination legislation 23

        II.2.2.3. Secularism legislation in Quebec 24

        II.2.2.4. Solemnization of marriage 30

III. Most relevant case law on the subject 31

  III.1. Freedom of religion and the division of powers 31

  III.2. Charter of Rights case law concerning the freedom of religion 33

    III.2.1. General principles 33

      III.2.1.1. R v. Big M Drug Mart 33

      III.2.1.2. Edwards Books 35

      III.2.1.3. Northcrest v. Amselem 36

    III.2.2. Other notable cases 39

      III.2.2.1. Accommodation and impairment of religion 39

        III.2.2.1.1. Multani v. Commission scolaire 39

        III.2.2.1.2. Alberta v Hutterian Brethren 41

        III.2.2.1.3. R. v. N.S. 43

        III.2.2.1.4. Ktunaxa v. BC 45

      III.2.2.2. Schools, parents and families 47

        III.2.2.2.1. Religious exercises in public schools 47

        III.2.2.2.2. Denominational schools 48

        III.2.2.2.3. Parental rights 51

        III.2.2.2.4. Marriage 56

      III.2.2.3. Religious conscientious objection 60

      III.2.2.4. Neutrality and secularism 62

        III.2.2.4.1. Duty of neutrality 62

        III.2.2.4.2. Validity of secularism legislation 65

      III.2.2.5. Waiver 66

        III.2.2.5.1. Northcrest v. Amselem 66

        III.2.2.5.2. Bruker v. Markovitz 68

      III.2.2.6. Corporate entities 69

III.3. Freedom of conscience 72

  III.3.1. R. v. Morgentaler (1988) 72

  III.3.2. Cases in which the freedom was found to be infringed 74

    III.3.2.1. Maurice v. Canada 74

    III.3.2.2. Batty v. Toronto 75

  III.3.3. Cases in which the freedom was found not to be infringed 75

III.4. Freedom of thought 78

  III.4.1. Cases in which the freedom was found not to be infringed 78

  III.4.2. Cases in which the freedom was found to be infringed 80

IV. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion and its challenges 82

  IV.1. Definitions 82

    IV.1.1. Thought 82

    IV.1.2. Conscience 83

    IV.1.3. Religion 84

    IV.1.4. Possible conflicts between the three concepts 85

  IV.2. Legal nature and judicial protection 86

    IV.2.1. Legal nature 86

    IV.2.2. Judicial protection 86

      IV.2.2.1. Charter of Rights 86

      IV.2.2.2. Provincial rights charters 88

  IV.3. Relation with the rule of law 89

    IV.3.1. General remarks 89

    IV.3.2. Subjection of officials and citizens to law 91

      IV.3.2.1. Officials 91

      IV.3.2.2. Members of society who are not officials 93

  IV.4. Application in a decentralized state structure 94

    IV.4.1. Federal-provincial division of powers 94

    IV.4.2. Fundamental rights 94

  IV.5. Conflicts and coincidences 96

    IV.5.1. Freedom of expression 96

    IV.5.2. Right to life 98

    IV.5.3. Right to the integrity of the person 100

    IV.5.4. Right to respect for private life 104

      IV.5.4.1. General observations 104

      IV.5.4.2. Connections with freedom of thought, conscience and religion 106

        IV.5.4.2.1. Privacy legislation and information about religion and “personal opinions” 106

        IV.5.4.2.2. Religious records and private sector privacy legislation 107

        IV.5.4.2.3. Religious communications and privilege 109

  IV.5.5. Right to respect for family life 111

  IV.5.6. Right to marry 112

  IV.5.7. Right to found a family 114

  IV.5.8. Freedom of assembly and association 115

  IV.5.9. Academic freedom 118

  IV.5.10. Right to education 120

    IV.5.10.1. General 120

    IV.5.10.2. Connections with the freedom of religion 121

  IV.5.11. Right to health 124

    IV.5.11.1. General 124

    IV.5.11.2. Connections with freedom of conscience and religion 126

  IV.5.12. Right to equality 127

    IV.5.12.1. Charter of Rights 127

    IV.5.12.2. Antidiscrimination legislation 131

    IV.5.13. Other areas of convergence or conflict 133

      IV.5.13.1. Apostasy 133

      IV.5.13.2. Right to change belief 134

      IV.5.13.3. Conscientious objection 135

      IV.5.13.4. Public and private manifestations of religion or belief in worship, practice and observance 137

      IV.5.13.5. Hate crimes 138

      IV.5.13.6. Reconstruction of history and obligation to comply with it (including damnatio memoriae) 142

  IV.6. Future challenges 144

V. Conclusions 146

  V.1. State of play 146

    V.1.1. Duality, minority protection and secularism 146

    V.1.2. Guarantee of the freedoms of thought, conscience and religion 147

  V.2. Possible future developments 147

List of laws and regulations 149

List of cases 154

Bibliography 158

List of websites checked 160

List of Editor’s notes (EdN) 161

Legislation cited in the Editor’s notes 162

Case Law cited in the Editor’s notes 164

Bibliography in the Editor’s notes 165

List of publications of the Comparative Law Library 171