LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 6

LIST OF BOXES 8

LIST OF FIGURES 8

LIST OF TABLES 8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9

INTRODUCTION 12

  Scope and approach of the study 12

  Monitoring trends, disparities and changes over time 13

CHILD POVERTY 16

  Trends and changes over time 16

  Remaining barriers and drivers of inequalities and child poverty 17

    The role of employment 18

    Material deprivation and the cost of living 19

    Family characteristics and unequal exposure to poverty 19

    Fragmented governance and coordination 21

  Policies tackling child poverty 22

    Strengthening of cash benefits, tax relief and minimum income protection for families with children 22

    Supporting the employment of parents and improving work-family balance 24

    Reducing essential household expenditure through benefits and services in kind 26

    Integrating and locally coordinating anti-poverty interventions 27

    Targeted children 28

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE 30

  Trends and changes over time 30

  Remaining barriers, drivers and inequalities in access to ECEC 35

    Affordability of ECEC 36

    Availability of suitable provision 37

    Indirect barriers to access 38

    Workforce quality and shortages 39

  Policies promoting access to ECEC 39

    Increasing the availability of ECEC places 39

    Reducing financial barriers to participation 40

    Increasing participation among disadvantaged groups 41

    Improving the quality of ECEC services and strengthening the workforce 43

    Strengthening governance, planning and integrated service delivery 44

EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING 46

  Trends and changes over time 47

  Remaining barriers and drivers of early school leaving 49

    Socioeconomic disadvantage and educational difficulties 49

    Absenteeism, well-being and school environment 51

    Groups facing higher risks of early leaving 51

  Policies addressing early school leaving 53

    Early warning, monitoring and individual case management 53

    Personalised learning, language and psychosocial support 54

    Promoting cooperation among schools, families, municipalities and community services 56

    Reducing material and practical barriers to participation and re-engagement 57

UNMET HEALTHCARE NEEDS 59

  Trends and changes over time 59

  Remaining barriers, drivers and inequalities in meeting healthcare needs 61

    Socioeconomic disadvantage and financial barriers 61

    Availability, waiting times and geographical accessibility 62

    Administrative, information and institutional barriers 63

    Mental healthcare as particular access gap 64

    Children facing additional barriers 65

  Policies addressing unmet healthcare needs for children 66

    Strengthening preventive healthcare and early identification of health and developmental problems 66

    Reducing financial, territorial and administrative barriers 67

    Improving accessibility to child and adolescent mental healthcare 68

HOUSING COST OVERBURDEN 71

  Trends and changes over time 71

  Remaining barriers, drivers and inequalities in housing cost overburden 73

    Housing affordability pressures: low incomes, rising costs and insufficient affordable housing 73

    Housing quality, energy poverty and hidden forms of housing hardship 74

    Children most vulnerable to housing-cost overburden and housing exclusion 75

  Policies addressing housing cost overburden among families with children 76

    Housing allowances, rent subsidies and other assistance with housing expenditure 76

    Increasing the supply of affordable housing 78

    Addressing energy poverty 78

    Eviction prevention, homelessness services and housing-led approaches 79

CROSS-CUTTING IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNT 81

  Governance, coordination and stakeholder involvement 82

  Child participation 83

  Financing, sustainability and the capacity to use available funds 84

  Monitoring and evaluation 87

CONCLUSIONS 89

  Trends and changes over time 89

  Implementation barriers 90

  Policies 91

  Policy recommendations 93

REFERENCES 96

ANNEX I: CONVERGENCE METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED 107

ANNEX II: SUMMARY OF CONVERGENCE RESULTS FOR ALL INDICATORS 108