Agricultural policy monitoring and evaluation 2025 : making the most of the trade and environment nexus in agriculture

Title page 1

Contents 7

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Acronyms and Abbreviations 19

Executive Summary 22

1. Making the most of the trade and environment nexus in agriculture 26

The evolving agro-food trade and policy landscape 28

Interactions between environmental sustainability and agro-food trade 49

The growing role of trade policies for environmental sustainability 54

Domestic policies to mitigate and measure GHG emissions and their links with trade 62

Summary and conclusions 71

References 72

Notes 79

2. Overview of agricultural policies and support 82

Global drivers of agricultural policies in 2024-25 84

Overview of the evolution of support to agriculture 86

Conclusions 104

References 105

Annex 2.A. Definition of OECD indicators of agricultural support 107

Annex 2.B. Estimates of support to agriculture: Regional aggregates 113

Notes 116

3. Developments in agricultural policies and support by country 117

Activities, reforms and responses to events in 2024-25 118

Support levels and trends by country 129

Conclusions 137

Reference 138

Notes 138

Country chapters 139

4. Argentina 140

Main findings 140

Policy landscape 146

Recent policy developments 148

Policy context 151

References 157

Notes 158

5. Australia 159

Main findings 159

Policy landscape 165

Recent policy developments 168

Policy context 170

References 176

Notes 177

6. Brazil 178

Main findings 178

Policy landscape 184

Recent policy developments 185

Policy context 187

References 194

7. Canada 195

Main findings 195

Policy landscape 201

Recent policy developments 205

Policy context 210

References 217

Notes 218

8. Chile 219

Main findings 219

Policy landscape 225

Recent policy developments 227

Policy context 229

Reference 235

9. China 236

Main findings 236

Policy landscape 243

Recent policy developments 245

Policy context 249

References 258

Notes 258

10. Colombia 259

Main findings 259

Policy landscape 265

Recent policy developments 266

Policy context 267

References 275

Notes 275

11. Costa Rica 276

Main findings 276

Policy landscape 282

Recent policy developments 285

Policy context 286

References 293

Notes 294

12. European Union 295

Main findings 295

Policy landscape 302

Recent policy developments 313

Country snapshots 317

Policy context 346

References 355

Notes 358

13. Iceland 360

Main findings 360

Policy landscape 367

Recent policy developments 368

Policy context 370

References 377

14. India 378

Main findings 378

Policy landscape 385

Recent policy developments 388

Policy context 390

References 399

Notes 399

15. Indonesia 400

Main findings 400

Policy landscape 406

Recent policy developments 409

Policy context 413

References 421

Notes 422

16. Israel 423

Main findings 423

Policy landscape 429

Recent policy developments 430

Policy context 435

References 442

Notes 442

17. Japan 443

Main findings 443

Policy landscape 449

Recent policy developments 452

Policy context 455

References 462

18. Kazakhstan 463

Main findings 463

Policy landscape 470

Recent policy developments 472

Policy context 474

References 481

19. Korea 482

Main findings 482

Policy landscape 488

Recent policy developments 490

Policy context 492

References 499

20. Mexico 500

Main findings 500

Policy landscape 506

Recent policy developments 508

Policy context 510

References 516

21. New Zealand 517

Main findings 517

Policy landscape 523

Recent policy developments 526

Policy context 527

References 534

Notes 535

22. Norway 536

Main findings 536

Policy landscape 542

Recent policy developments 543

Policy context 545

References 551

23. Philippines 552

Main findings 552

Policy landscape 558

Recent policy developments 559

Policy context 564

References 571

Note 572

24. South Africa 573

Main findings 573

Policy landscape 579

Recent policy developments 581

Policy context 583

References 590

Notes 590

25. Switzerland 592

Main findings 592

Policy landscape 599

Recent policy developments 602

Policy context 605

References 611

Notes 612

26. Türkiye 613

Main findings 613

Policy landscape 619

Recent policy developments 621

Policy context 623

Reference 630

Notes 630

27. Ukraine 631

Main findings 631

Policy landscape 637

Recent policy developments 640

Policy context 643

References 649

Notes 650

28. United Kingdom 651

Main findings 651

Policy landscape 658

Recent policy developments 664

Policy context 667

References 673

Note 673

29. United States 674

Main findings 674

Policy landscape 680

Recent policy developments 681

Policy context 684

References 692

Notes 693

30. Viet Nam 694

Main findings 694

Policy landscape 700

Recent policy developments 703

Policy context 704

References 712

Notes 713

Annex A. Sources and Definitions of Contextual Indicators 714

Tables 16

Table 1.1. Level of risk or potential benefit for the environment within the proposed typology 39

Table 1.2. Average and maximum most-favoured nation (MFN) applied tariffs by product group 42

Table 1.3. Types of direct and indirect mitigation policy instruments in AFOLU sectors 64

Table 4.1. Argentina: Estimates of support to agriculture 145

Table 4.2. Argentina: Contextual indicators 151

Table 4.3. Argentina: Productivity and environmental indicators 155

Table 4.4. Argentina: Agricultural policy trends 156

Table 5.1. Australia: Estimates of support to agriculture 164

Table 5.2. Australia: Contextual indicators 170

Table 5.3. Australia: Productivity and environmental indicators 174

Table 5.4. Australia: Agricultural policy trends 175

Table 6.1. Brazil: Estimates of support to agriculture 183

Table 6.2. Brazil: Contextual indicators 187

Table 6.3. Brazil: Productivity and environmental indicators 191

Table 6.4. Brazil: Agricultural policy trends 192

Table 7.1. Canada: Estimates of support to agriculture 200

Table 7.2. Canada: Contextual indicators 210

Table 7.3. Canada: Productivity and environmental indicators 214

Table 7.4. Canada: Agricultural policy trends 215

Table 8.1. Chile: Estimates of support to agriculture 224

Table 8.2. Chile: Contextual indicators 229

Table 8.3. Chile: Productivity and environmental indicators 232

Table 8.4. Chile: Agricultural policy trends 233

Table 9.1. China: Estimates of support to agriculture 242

Table 9.2. China: Contextual indicators 250

Table 9.3. China: Productivity and environmental indicators 254

Table 9.4. China: Agricultural policy trends 256

Table 10.1. Colombia: Estimates of support to agriculture 264

Table 10.2. Colombia: Contextual indicators 268

Table 10.3. Colombia: Productivity and environmental indicators 271

Table 10.4. Colombia: Agricultural policy trends 273

Table 11.1. Costa Rica: Estimates of support to agriculture 281

Table 11.2. Costa Rica: Contextual indicators 287

Table 11.3. Costa Rica: Productivity and environmental indicators 291

Table 11.4. Costa Rica: Agricultural policy trends 292

Table 12.1. European Union: Estimates of support to agriculture 301

Table 12.2. CSP Implementation choices 309

Table 12.3. EU expenditure on agriculture by source and use, 2024 314

Table 12.4. Austria's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 319

Table 12.5. Flanders' and Wallonia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 320

Table 12.6. Bulgaria's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 321

Table 12.7. Croatia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 322

Table 12.8. Cyprus' CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 323

Table 12.9. Czechia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 324

Table 12.10. Denmark's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 325

Table 12.11. Estonia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 326

Table 12.12. Finland's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 327

Table 12.13. France's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 328

Table 12.14. Germany's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 329

Table 12.15. Greece's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 330

Table 12.16. Hungary's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 331

Table 12.17. Ireland's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 332

Table 12.18. Italy's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 333

Table 12.19. Latvia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 334

Table 12.20. Lithuania's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 335

Table 12.21. Luxembourg's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 336

Table 12.22. Malta's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 337

Table 12.23. Netherlands' CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 338

Table 12.24. Poland's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 339

Table 12.25. Portugal's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 340

Table 12.26. Romania's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 341

Table 12.27. Slovakia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 342

Table 12.28. Slovenia's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 343

Table 12.29. Spain's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 344

Table 12.30. Sweden's CSP planned budget and structure of rural development support 345

Table 12.31. European Union: Contextual indicators 346

Table 12.32. European Union: Productivity and environmental indicators 350

Table 12.33. European Union: Agricultural policy trends 352

Table 13.1. Iceland: Estimates of support to agriculture 366

Table 13.2. Iceland: Contextual indicators 371

Table 13.3. Iceland: Productivity and environmental indicators 375

Table 13.4. Iceland: Agricultural policy trends 375

Table 14.1. India: Estimates of support to agriculture 384

Table 14.2. India: Contextual indicators 391

Table 14.3. India: Productivity and environmental indicators 395

Table 14.4. India: Agricultural policy trends 397

Table 15.1. Indonesia: Estimates of support to agriculture 405

Table 15.2. Indonesia: Contextual indicators 414

Table 15.3. Indonesia: Productivity and environmental indicators 418

Table 15.4. Indonesia: Agricultural policy trends 419

Table 16.1. Israel: Estimates of support to agriculture 428

Table 16.2. Israel: Contextual indicators 435

Table 16.3. Israel: Productivity and environmental indicators 439

Table 16.4. Israel: Agricultural policy trends 440

Table 17.1. Japan: Estimates of support to agriculture 448

Table 17.2. Japan: Contextual indicators 455

Table 17.3. Japan: Productivity and environmental indicators 459

Table 17.4. Japan: Agricultural policy trends 460

Table 18.1. Kazakhstan: Estimates of support to agriculture 469

Table 18.2. Kazakhstan: Contextual indicators 475

Table 18.3. Kazakhstan: Productivity and environmental indicators 478

Table 18.4. Kazakhstan: Agricultural policy trends 479

Table 19.1. Korea: Estimates of support to agriculture 487

Table 19.2. Korea: Contextual indicators 493

Table 19.3. Korea: Productivity and environmental indicators 497

Table 19.4. Korea: Agricultural policy trends 498

Table 20.1. Mexico: Estimates of support to agriculture 505

Table 20.2. Mexico: Contextual indicators 510

Table 20.3. Mexico: Productivity and environmental indicators 513

Table 20.4. Mexico: Agricultural policy trends 514

Table 21.1. New Zealand: Estimates of support to agriculture 522

Table 21.2. New Zealand: Contextual indicators 528

Table 21.3. New Zealand: Productivity and environmental indicators 532

Table 21.4. New Zealand: Agricultural policy trends 533

Table 22.1. Norway: Estimates of support to agriculture 541

Table 22.2. Norway: Contextual indicators 545

Table 22.3. Norway: Productivity and environmental indicators 549

Table 22.4. Norway: Agricultural policy trends 550

Table 23.1. Philippines: Estimates of support to agriculture 557

Table 23.2. Philippines: Contextual indicators 565

Table 23.3. Philippines: Productivity and environmental indicators 569

Table 23.4/Table 233.4. Philippines: Agricultural policy trends 570

Table 24.1. South Africa: Estimates of support to agriculture 578

Table 24.2. South Africa: Contextual indicators 584

Table 24.3. South Africa: Productivity and environmental indicators 588

Table 24.4. South Africa: Agricultural policy trends 589

Table 25.1. Switzerland: Estimates of support to agriculture 598

Table 25.2. Switzerland: Contextual indicators 605

Table 25.3. Switzerland: Productivity and environmental indicators 609

Table 25.4. Switzerland: Agricultural policy trends 610

Table 26.1. Türkiye: Estimates of support to agriculture 618

Table 26.2. Türkiye: Contextual indicators 623

Table 26.3. Türkiye: Productivity and environmental indicators 627

Table 26.4. Türkiye: Agricultural policy trends 628

Table 27.1. Ukraine: Estimates of support to agriculture 636

Table 27.2. Ukraine: Contextual indicators 643

Table 27.3. Ukraine: Productivity and environmental indicators 646

Table 27.4. Ukraine: Agricultural policy trends 648

Table 28.1. United Kingdom: Estimates of support to agriculture 657

Table 28.2. United Kingdom: Contextual indicators 667

Table 28.3. United Kingdom: Productivity and environmental indicators 671

Table 28.4. United Kingdom: Agricultural policy trends 672

Table 29.1. United States: Estimates of support to agriculture 679

Table 29.2. United States: Contextual indicators 685

Table 29.3. United States: Productivity and environmental indicators 689

Table 29.4. United States: Agricultural policy trends 690

Table 30.1. Viet Nam: Estimates of support to agriculture 699

Table 30.2. Viet Nam: Contextual indicators 706

Table 30.3. Viet Nam: Productivity and environmental indicators 709

Table 30.4. Viet Nam: Agricultural policy trends 710

Figures 12

Figure 1.1. World agro-food exports by exporting region, 1995-2023 29

Figure 1.2. World agro-food imports by importing region, 1995-2023 30

Figure 1.3. Net agro-food exports by region 31

Figure 1.4. Growth in exports of the top agro-food products 32

Figure 1.5. Exports as a percentage of global production of selected commodities 33

Figure 1.6. GVC-related trade of agro-food products, 1995-2020 34

Figure 1.7. Evolution of backward participation in GVCs for agriculture and food 35

Figure 1.8. Evolution of the Producer Nominal Protection Coefficient 37

Figure 1.9. Evolution of the Producer Nominal Protection Coefficient by country 38

Figure 1.10. Most-favoured nation (MFN) applied tariffs, 2006-23 41

Figure 1.11. Cumulative number of RTAs in force, 1995-2024 43

Figure 1.12. Categories of NTMs implemented on agricultural products, 2022 44

Figure 1.13. Overview of export restrictions introduced between January 2007 and April 2024 47

Figure 1.14. Labour rights in selected supply chains 52

Figure 1.15. Typology of trade-related measures linked to the environmental sustainability of agriculture 56

Figure 1.16. Date of approval or application of the measures 57

Figure 1.17. Types of trade-related measures related to the environmental sustainability of agriculture 57

Figure 1.18. Sustainability initiatives with environmental objectives, by sector 59

Figure 1.19. Global food systems GHG emissions by supply chain stage, 2019 63

Figure 1.20. Mitigation policy instruments in AFOLU, by category and type 64

Figure 1.21. Features of public and public-private carbon footprint measurement tools reported 68

Figure 2.1. Commodity prices generally stable, but higher for dairy products 85

Figure 2.2. Structure of agricultural support indicators 87

Figure 2.3. Support is at a new plateau since 2020, but lower as share of value of production 89

Figure 2.4. China and India have become an important part of the agricultural support landscape 91

Figure 2.5. Higher farm receipts have driven down support as a share of farm revenue 92

Figure 2.6. Consumers face a mix of policies that either support or implicitly tax them 95

Figure 2.7. Infrastructure is the largest component of the GSSE 96

Figure 2.8. More positive and more negative MPS in 2024 98

Figure 2.9. When input constraints exist, they often refer to laws already in place 100

Figure 2.10. Sugar, maize and rice receive substantial directed support 102

Figure 2.11. The white commodities took different paths 103

Figure 3.1. Support to producers across countries varied between -15% and 49% of gross farm receipts 131

Figure 3.2. Infrastructure or AKIS are the largest components of general support in most countries 132

Figure 3.3. With a few important exceptions, most countries' consumers are implicitly taxed by agricultural policies 133

Figure 3.4. Potentially most distorting transfers in different countries range from less than 0.3% to 40% of farm receipts 134

Figure 3.5. In most countries, MPS varies significantly across commodities 135

Figure 3.6. Norway and Switzerland offer the most less-coupled support as a share of gross farm receipts 136

Figure 4.1. Argentina: Development of support to agriculture 142

Figure 4.2. Argentina: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 144

Figure 4.3. Argentina: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 152

Figure 4.4. Argentina: Agro-food trade 153

Figure 4.5. Argentina: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 154

Figure 4.6. Argentina: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1997 to 2024 157

Figure 5.1. Australia: Development of support to agriculture 161

Figure 5.2. Australia: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 163

Figure 5.3. Australia: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 171

Figure 5.4. Australia: Agro-food trade 172

Figure 5.5. Australia: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 173

Figure 5.6. Australia: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 175

Figure 6.1. Brazil: Development of support to agriculture 180

Figure 6.2. Brazil: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 182

Figure 6.3. Brazil: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 182

Figure 6.4. Brazil: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 188

Figure 6.5. Brazil: Agro-food trade 189

Figure 6.6. Brazil: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 190

Figure 6.7. Brazil: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1995 to 2024 193

Figure 7.1. Canada: Development of support to agriculture 197

Figure 7.2. Canada: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 199

Figure 7.3. Canada: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 199

Figure 7.4. Canada: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 211

Figure 7.5. Canada: Agro-food trade 212

Figure 7.6. Canada: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 213

Figure 7.7. Canada: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 216

Figure 8.1. Chile: Development of support to agriculture 221

Figure 8.2. Chile: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 223

Figure 8.3. Chile: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 223

Figure 8.4. Chile: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 230

Figure 8.5. Chile: Agro-food trade 231

Figure 8.6. Chile: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 232

Figure 8.7. Chile: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1990 to 2024 234

Figure 9.1. China: Development of support to agriculture 239

Figure 9.2. China: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 241

Figure 9.3. China: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 241

Figure 9.4. China: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 251

Figure 9.5. China: Agro-food trade 252

Figure 9.6. China: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 253

Figure 9.7. China: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1993 to 2024 257

Figure 10.1. Colombia: Development of support to agriculture 261

Figure 10.2. Colombia: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 263

Figure 10.3. Colombia: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 263

Figure 10.4. Colombia: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 269

Figure 10.5. Colombia: Agro-food trade 270

Figure 10.6. Colombia: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 271

Figure 10.7. Colombia: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1992 to 2024 274

Figure 11.1. Costa Rica: Development of support to agriculture 278

Figure 11.2. Costa Rica: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 280

Figure 11.3. Costa Rica: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 280

Figure 11.4. Costa Rica: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 288

Figure 11.5. Costa Rica: Agro-food trade 289

Figure 11.6. Costa Rica: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 290

Figure 11.7. Costa Rica: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1995 to 2024 293

Figure 12.1. European Union: Development of support to agriculture 297

Figure 12.2. European Union: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 299

Figure 12.3. European Union: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 300

Figure 12.4. CAP 2023-27, share of planned expenditures by type of intervention 303

Figure 12.5. Rural Development: Planned budget under CAP Strategic Plans 2023-27, by type of intervention 307

Figure 12.6. European Union: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 347

Figure 12.7. European Union: Agro-food trade 348

Figure 12.8. European Union: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 349

Figure 12.9. European Union: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 354

Figure 13.1. Iceland: Development of support to agriculture 362

Figure 13.2. Iceland: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 364

Figure 13.3. Iceland: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 365

Figure 13.4. Iceland: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 372

Figure 13.5. Iceland: Agro-food trade 373

Figure 13.6. Iceland: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 374

Figure 13.7. Iceland: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 376

Figure 14.1. India: Development of support to agriculture 381

Figure 14.2. India: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 383

Figure 14.3. India: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 392

Figure 14.4. India: Agro-food trade 393

Figure 14.5. India: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 394

Figure 14.6. India: Development of the PSE and its composition, 2000 to 2024 398

Figure 15.1. Indonesia: Development of support to agriculture 402

Figure 15.2. Indonesia: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 404

Figure 15.3. Indonesia: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 404

Figure 15.4. Indonesia: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 415

Figure 15.5. Indonesia: Agro-food trade 416

Figure 15.6. Indonesia: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 417

Figure 15.7. Indonesia: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1990 to 2024 420

Figure 16.1. Israel: Development of support to agriculture 425

Figure 16.2. Israel: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 427

Figure 16.3. Israel: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 427

Figure 16.4. Israel: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 436

Figure 16.5. Israel: Agro-food trade 437

Figure 16.6. Israel: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 438

Figure 16.7. Israel: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1995 to 2024 441

Figure 17.1. Japan: Development of support to agriculture 445

Figure 17.2. Japan: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 447

Figure 17.3. Japan: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 447

Figure 17.4. Japan: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 456

Figure 17.5. Japan: Agro-food trade 457

Figure 17.6. Japan: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 458

Figure 17.7. Japan: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 461

Figure 18.1. Kazakhstan: Development of support to agriculture 465

Figure 18.2. Kazakhstan: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 468

Figure 18.3. Kazakhstan: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 468

Figure 18.4. Kazakhstan: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2023 476

Figure 18.5. Kazakhstan: Agro-food trade 477

Figure 18.6. Kazakhstan: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 478

Figure 18.7. Kazakhstan: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1995 to 2024 480

Figure 19.1. Korea: Development of support to agriculture 484

Figure 19.2. Korea: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 486

Figure 19.3. Korea: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 486

Figure 19.4. Korea: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 494

Figure 19.5. Korea: Agro-food trade 495

Figure 19.6. Korea: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 496

Figure 19.7. Korea: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 498

Figure 20.1. Mexico: Development of support to agriculture 502

Figure 20.2. Mexico: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 504

Figure 20.3. Mexico: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 504

Figure 20.4. Mexico: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 511

Figure 20.5. Mexico: Agro-food trade 512

Figure 20.6. Mexico: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 513

Figure 20.7. Mexico: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 515

Figure 21.1. New Zealand: Development of support to agriculture 519

Figure 21.2. New Zealand: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 521

Figure 21.3. New Zealand: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 521

Figure 21.4. New Zealand: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 529

Figure 21.5. New Zealand: Agro-food trade 530

Figure 21.6. New Zealand: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 531

Figure 21.7. New Zealand: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 533

Figure 22.1. Norway: Development of support to agriculture 538

Figure 22.2. Norway: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 540

Figure 22.3. Norway: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 540

Figure 22.4. Norway: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 546

Figure 22.5. Norway: Agro-food trade 547

Figure 22.6. Norway: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 548

Figure 22.7. Norway: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 551

Figure 23.1. Philippines: Development of support to agriculture 554

Figure 23.2. Philippines: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 556

Figure 23.3. Philippines: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 556

Figure 23.4. Philippines: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 566

Figure 23.5. Philippines: Agro-food trade 567

Figure 23.6. Philippines: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 568

Figure 23.7. Philippines: Development of the PSE and its composition, 2000 to 2024 571

Figure 24.1. South Africa: Development of support to agriculture 575

Figure 24.2. South Africa: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 577

Figure 24.3. South Africa: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 577

Figure 24.4. South Africa: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 585

Figure 24.5. South Africa: Agro-food trade 586

Figure 24.6. South Africa: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 587

Figure 24.7. South Africa: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1994 to 2024 589

Figure 25.1. Switzerland: Development of support to agriculture 594

Figure 25.2. Switzerland: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 596

Figure 25.3. Switzerland: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 597

Figure 25.4. Switzerland: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 606

Figure 25.5. Switzerland: Agro-food trade 607

Figure 25.6. Switzerland: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 608

Figure 25.7. Switzerland: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 611

Figure 26.1. Türkiye: Development of support to agriculture 615

Figure 26.2. Türkiye: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 617

Figure 26.3. Türkiye: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 617

Figure 26.4. Türkiye: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 624

Figure 26.5. Türkiye: Agro-food trade 625

Figure 26.6. Türkiye: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 626

Figure 26.7. Türkiye: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 629

Figure 27.1. Ukraine: Development of support to agriculture 633

Figure 27.2. Ukraine: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 635

Figure 27.3. Ukraine: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 644

Figure 27.4. Ukraine: Agro-food trade 645

Figure 27.5. Ukraine: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 646

Figure 27.6. Ukraine: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1995 to 2024 649

Figure 28.1. United Kingdom: Development of support to agriculture 653

Figure 28.2. United Kingdom: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2023 to 2024 655

Figure 28.3. United Kingdom: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 656

Figure 28.4. United Kingdom: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 668

Figure 28.5. United Kingdom: Agro-food trade 669

Figure 28.6. United Kingdom: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 670

Figure 28.7. United Kingdom: Development of the PSE and its composition, 2017 to 2024 672

Figure 29.1. United States: Development of support to agriculture 675

Figure 29.2. United States: Drivers of the change in PSE, 2022 to 2023 677

Figure 29.3. United States: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 678

Figure 29.4. United States: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 686

Figure 29.5. United States: Agro-food trade 687

Figure 29.6. United States: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 688

Figure 29.7. United States: Development of the PSE and its composition, 1986 to 2024 692

Figure 30.1. Viet Nam: Development of support to agriculture 696

Figure 30.2. Viet Nam: Commodity-specific transfers (SCT), 2022-24 698

Figure 30.3. Viet Nam: Main economic indicators, 2000 to 2024 705

Figure 30.4. Viet Nam: Agro-food trade 707

Figure 30.5. Viet Nam: Composition of agricultural output growth, 2013-22 708

Figure 30.6. Viet Nam: Development of the PSE and its composition, 2000 to 2024 711

Boxes 18

Box 1.1. Measuring engagement in global value chains and identifying value adding pathways in agriculture and food trade 34

Box 1.2. Assessing the impacts of agricultural support policies on the environment 39

Box 1.3. Estimating the impact of agro-food NTMs 45

Box 1.4. Opportunities and challenges in SPS systems 46

Box 1.5. The Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) 49

Box 1.6. Addressing social and human rights risks in agro-food supply chains 51

Box 1.7. What kinds of environmental provisions are included in RTAs? 55

Box 1.8. Drivers of sustainability initiatives in highly traded sectors: A case study from the Australian beef and wheat sectors 60

Box 1.9. Measuring GHG emissions in food systems: Eight building blocks 70

Box 2.1. Budgetary components of the PSE 88

Box 2.2. OECD analysis and recommendations regarding policy support 90

Box 2.3. Components of the Consumer Support Estimate 94

Box 2.4. Understanding market price support 98

Box 2.5. Whatever happened to the "white commodities"? 102

Box 3.1. What numbers moved the most in 2024? 129

Box 12.1. The eight types of rural development interventions under the CAP 2023-27 305

Box 12.2. Examples of national initiatives addressing carbon footprint measurement in agriculture 312

Annex Tables 113

Annex Table 2.B.1. OECD: Estimates of support to agriculture 113

Annex Table 2.B.2. Emerging Economies: Estimates of support to agriculture 114

Annex Table 2.B.3. All countries: Estimates of support to agriculture 115

Annex Boxes 109

Annex Box 2.A.1. Definitions of categories in the PSE classification 109