국가전략정보포털

Title page

Contents

Acknowledgments 6

Abstract / Overview 10

Introduction: Technology and Public Purpose In City Data Governance 11

Technology: Data Sharing Hypothetical Become Not-So-Hypothetical in Cities 11

(Public) Purpose of this Report 14

Part 1: History and Theory 16

Section 1.1. Existing Scholarship: Platform Urbanism And Its Impact On Cities 17

What is Platform Urbanism? 17

Platform Urbanism as a Distinct, More Fully Realized Version of the "Smart City" 18

Digital Platforms, IRL Impacts: The Good, the Bad and the Disruptive 20

Challenges to Democratic Rule-Making Authority and Legitimacy 21

Section 1.2. Tracing The Origins Of Platform Data Sharing Policy Mandates In Cities 25

A Decade into the Sharing Economy, Cities Start Mandating Data 25

Understanding the Evolution 27

Big Data and a "Data Philanthropy" Vision for Public Good 28

The Data Philanthropy Vision Goes Local 30

Urban Platform Data Philanthropy in Action: Strava Metro and Waze CCP 33

Data Sharing on Uber's Terms 36

Early mandates: Select Cities Seek Data with Public Policy, While Platforms Resist 38

Techlash and the Sharing Economy 40

Dockless Micromobility and Post Tech-Lash Municipalism: Cities Band Together and Demand Data 42

Where Things Stand in Platform Urbanism: Controversy Over MDS and Possible Futures 48

Part 2: Policy, People, and Practice 50

Section 2.1. An Open Database For Gathering and Sharing Empirical Policy Information 51

Show Me the Policies: The Access to Information Problem 52

Aggregating a Policy Dataset 54

Policy Clean Up, Structuring, and Organizing to Create a Research Database 58

The Results: the Dataset, the "Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Hub" and Resultant Policy Analysis 61

Section 2.2. Conversations With Practionsers 88

Research Interviews with Practitioners 88

Interview Results: Synthesis and Discussion of Key Quotes and Observations 95

Part 3: Findings And Final Thoughts 116

Section 3.1. Summary Of Findings And Presentation Of Policy Guidelines 117

Summary of High-level Insights and Observations 118

Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Guidelines: Best Practice Recommendations for Practitioners 128

PUDS Policy Guidelines on the Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Hub 137

Section 3.2. Broader Implications: Democracy, Data, And The Future Of The City 138

New Frameworks Beyond the Binary 138

Individual vs. Collective Conceptions of Urban Platform Data and the Case for Managing City Data as a Commons 142

Conclusion: Beyond Data Sharing - Platform Regulation and Questions of Governance 148

Table 1. Business to government (B2G) city data sharing hypotheticals 12

Table 2. Phases of Technological Urbanism and Shifts in Sovereignty 19

Table 3. Local Governments with sharing economy platform data sharing mandates enacted 2008-2018 25

Table 4. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Database - Metadata Fields (Required) 59

Table 5. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Database - Metadata Fields (Optional) 59

Table 6. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Database - Metadata Fields (Best Practice "Tags") 60

Table 7. Data Sharing Use Case Categories 99

Table 8. Data Governance Critiques + Reform Proposalss 143

Figure 1. Number of observed Local Government Platform Urbanism Data Sharing (PUDS) Policies Enacted per Year. The chart shows a significant... 26

Figure 2. Screenshot from Data & Society's "Responsible Data Forum on Private Sector Data Sharing" 29event website 30

Figure 3. Screenshot from National League of Cities report, "Cities, the Sharing Economy, and What's Next" 32

Figure 4. Waze launched its "Connected Citizens Program (Waze CCP)" to provide "Data for Cities" in October of 2014. It has since rebranded to... 33

Figure 5. Screenshot of Strava Global Heatmap 34

Figure 6. Screenshot of an overview of the platform data available to cities via the "Waze for cities" program, (formerly Waze CCP) 35

Figure 7. Strava Metro's home page encourages cities to "Apply".46 The Strava Metro program moved away from a paid subscription model in 2020 and is now,... 36

Figure 8. A screenshot of Uber's "Movement" platform published as part of the company's press release in January 2017 37

Figures 9 & 10. Uber sends an email to customers (left) stressing privacy risks and stating that "New York City doesn't need this data". Uber's email to... 39

Figure 11. The Edelman Trust Barometer shows that trust in the tech sector has fallen from 78% in 2012 to 57% in 2021 among the US public 41

Figure 12. The Mobility Data Specification (MDS) is a data exchange protocol through which cities can access data from mobility operators and can... 46

Figure 13. In November 2018, the Cities of Amsterdam, Barcelona, and New York founded the "Cities Coalition for Digital Rights", a network that now includes... 47

Figure 14. The Platform Data Sharing Policy Hub - Home Page 61

Figure 15. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Hub - Policy Database 62

Figure 16. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Hub - Policy Map 63

Figure 17. "Platform Urbanism Data Sharing (PUDS) Policies by Originating Body Category." Over 70% of PUDS Policies observed were enacted by DOTs or Legislatures 64

Figure 18. PUDS Policies by Originating Body Category, broken down by type of sharing economy platform regulated 65

Figure 19. PUDS Policies by Platform Type, broken down further by Originating Body/Agency Category. Policies enacted by a "Legislature / Council"... 66

Figure 20. PUDS Policies by Type of Platform Regulated (Donut Chart). 52 out of 72 policies observed apply to micromobility platforms, representing... 67

Figure 21. PUDS Policies by Type of Platform Regulated (Bar Chart). 52 out of 72 policies observed apply to micromobility platforms, representing more than... 68

Figure 22. PUDS policies by government level 69

Figure 23. PUDS policies broken down further by platform type 69

Figure 24. Jurisdictions by number of policies, broken down by platform type regulated 70

Figure 25. PUDS Policy Map (Tableau). The above map shows data sharing policies mapped by jurisdiction with icons indicating platform type 71

Figure 26. PUDS Policies by Policy Type 73

Figure 27. PUDS Policies by Policy Type with percentages. The charts show a fairly even distribution among the three primary policy type categories... 73

Figure 28. PUDS Policies by Platform, broken down further by policy type. The chart shows An overrepresentation of the "Ordinance/Law" policy type in policies... 74

Figure 29. Timeline of PUDS policies polices enacted per year. Very few policies were adopted in the first decade of the sharing economy, prior to 2018 75

Figure 30. Policies enacted per year colored by platform type. The chart shows that micromobility platform data sharing policies are responsible for... 76

Figure 31. PUDS policies by jurisdiction, by date enacted and platform type. Chart shows each individual PUDs policy and illustrates the preponderance of... 76

Figure 32. The "Policy Dashboards and Text Search" page can be found under the "Explore Policies Tab on the Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Hub 79

Figure 33. The "Policy Dashboards and Text Search" page contains embedded and externally linked access to data visualizations configured in Tableau and on Stae 79

Figure 34. The "Policy Dashboards and Text Search" page contains embedded and externally linked access to data visualizations configured in Tableau and on Stae 80

Figure 35. Policies that mention "Privacy". The Chart shows policies containing the word "privacy" organized by originating body and color coded by policy type 86

Figure 36. Policies that mention "MDS". The Chart shows PUDS policies containing the acronym "MDS" organized by jurisdiction and color coded by... 87

Figure 37. Interview Subjects by Persona/Sector. 17 out of 25 interview subjects (68%) were local government officials, with 5 out of 25 (20%) representing... 90

Figure 38. Types of B2G or platform data sharing with which local government interview subjects were primarily involved. 12 out of 17 (70.6%) of local government officials... 90

Figure 39. Agency types represented by local government officials interviewed 91

Figure 40. Types of Jurisdictions represented by local government officials interviewed. The interview pool included local government officials from 15 different jurisdictions,... 92

Figure 41. Civic Analytics Network Dockless Mobility Open Letter 102

Figure 42. "Mobility Manager" product from Populus, a Software as a Service (SaaS) vendor that supports local governments in processing and using MDS data... 107

Figure 43. Platform Urbanism Data Sharing Policy Guidelines 137

Figure 44. Platform Data Sharing Justifications / Government Purpose 141