Title page

Contents

Abstract/Résumé 4

Introduction 6

The current state of gender equality 7

Policies to improve gender equality 22

Recommendations for fully realising the economic potential of women in Australia 39

References 40

Table 1. Main Australian government benefit payments 24

Figure 1. Gender differences in wellbeing outcomes exist along many dimensions 7

Figure 2. Women in Australia are highly educated 7

Figure 3. Women are more likely than men to report being sexually harassed 8

Figure 4. Most Australians believe the government has a responsibility to promote gender equality 9

Figure 5. The gender labour income gap arises from the extent, intensity and rewards from work 10

Figure 6. Female labour participation has increased substantially 11

Figure 7. There remains scope to further increase female participation 12

Figure 8. The gap in employment rates with the native-born population is larger for women born overseas 13

Figure 9. Employment rates are especially low for single mothers 14

Figure 10. Poverty rates are very high in single parent households 15

Figure 11. Many women in Australia work part-time 16

Figure 12. Childcare is a significant reason for women working part-time 17

Figure 13. The narrowing in the gender wage gap has slowed 18

Figure 14. Women are still underrepresented at the most senior ranks 19

Figure 15. Women are more likely to experience discrimination by employers 19

Figure 16. The gender wage gap increases over the life cycle 20

Figure 17. Gender segregation is apparent across occupations and industries 21

Figure 18. Second earners in a household are usually female 23

Figure 19. The tax and transfer system imposes very high marginal effective tax rates on single parents 25

Figure 20. Women receive a lower share of the benefits from many tax expenditures 26

Figure 21. Women now account for a much larger share of JobSeeker recipients 27

Figure 22. Low childcare enrolment rates partly reflect high out-of-pocket childcare costs 29

Figure 23. High childcare costs contribute to a high disincentive rate for second earners 30

Figure 24. The duration and rate of leave for mothers is low 33

Figure 25. The duration and rate of father-specific parental leave is low 34

Figure 26. Relatively few women are studying and working in STEM fields 35

Figure 27. Remote working has increased more for women 36

Boxes

Box 1. Employment rates of women born overseas 13

Box 2. Decomposing Australia's gender wage gap using HILDA 20

Box 3. OECD Review of Gender Mainstreaming and Budgeting in Australia 22