A Sobering Duty: U.S. Presidents Grapple with the Sole Authority to Launch Nuclear Weapons

Introduction 1
U.S. Nuclear Command and Control 3
Presidential Authority in Context 5
 Targeting and Employment Options 5
 Forces and Funding 6
 Command, Control, and Communications 6
 Crisis Consultations 7
 Legal Parameters 7
Key Themes 9
 1. Presidents had varied previous experience working on nuclear issues. 9
 2. Presidents were horrified by plans for total nuclear war. 11
 3. Presidents sought nuclear options short of total nuclear war. 14
 4. Presidents issued nuclear threats, but sought to avoid nuclear use. 17
 5. Presidents consulted advisers, but did not always follow advice. 21
 6. Mishaps undermined the command and control system. 23
 7. Presidents altered the NC3 system to address evolving threats. 24
Current Policy Debates 27
Conclusion 29
About the Authors 32
Endnotes 34