Title page 1

Contents 5

Foreword 4

Reader's guide 8

Executive summary 11

1. Indicator overview: Country dashboards and major trends 14

Introduction 15

Health status 17

Non-medical determinants and risk factors for health 19

Access to care 21

Quality of care 23

Health system capacity and resources 25

Cross-cutting dimensions of health system performance - quadrant charts 27

Links to further indicators of cross-cutting health system performance 28

References 29

2. Which diseases affect men and women differently - and why this matters 30

Introduction 32

How do causes of mortality differ between women and men? 34

Despite living longer, women experience more prolonged physical and mental illness 41

Health inequalities stem from a complex interplay of biological, social and lifestyle factors, as well as unequal access to and experiences of healthcare 46

Concluding thoughts 52

References 52

Notes 56

3. Health status 58

Life expectancy at birth 59

Main causes of mortality 61

Avoidable mortality (preventable and treatable) 63

Mortality from circulatory diseases 65

Cancer incidence and mortality 67

Maternal and infant mortality 69

Adolescent health 71

Chronic conditions 73

Mental health 75

Self-rated health 77

4. Non-medical determinants and risk factors 80

Smoking and vaping 81

Illicit drug use 83

Smoking, vaping and cannabis use among adolescents 85

Alcohol consumption 87

Alcohol consumption among adolescents 89

Nutrition and physical activity 91

Nutrition and physical activity among adolescents 93

Overweight and obesity 95

Overweight and obesity among adolescents 97

Environment and health 99

5. Access and coverage 102

Population coverage for healthcare 103

Unmet needs for healthcare 105

Extent of healthcare coverage 107

Financial hardship and out-of-pocket expenditure 109

Waiting times 111

Physical access to services 113

Consultations with doctors 115

Hospital beds and occupancy 117

Hospital activity 119

Hip and knee replacement 121

Ambulatory surgery 123

6. Quality and outcomes of care 126

Routine vaccinations 127

Cancer screening 129

Safe prescribing in primary care 131

Avoidable hospital admissions 133

Effective care for chronic conditions 135

Person-centredness of primary care 137

Safe acute care - workplace culture and patient experiences 139

Safe acute care - surgical complications and handling of errors 141

Mortality following acute myocardial infarction (AMI) 143

Mortality following ischaemic stroke 145

Care for people with mental health disorders 147

Patient-reported outcomes in hospital care 149

Integrated care 151

7. Health expenditure 154

Health expenditure in relation to GDP 155

Health expenditure per capita 157

Prices in the health sector 159

Health expenditure by financing scheme 161

Public funding of health spending 163

Health expenditure by type of service 165

Health expenditure on prevention and primary healthcare 167

Health expenditure by provider 169

Capital expenditure in the health sector 171

Spending on crisis preparedness and critical care capacities 173

Health spending projections 175

8. Health workforce 178

Health and social care workforce 179

Doctors (overall number and distribution) 181

Doctors (by age, gender and category) 183

Remuneration of general practitioners 185

Remuneration of specialists 187

Nurses 189

Remuneration of nurses 191

Hospital workers 193

Medical graduates 195

Nursing graduates 197

International migration of doctors 199

International migration of nurses 201

9. Pharmaceuticals, technologies, and digital health 204

Pharmaceutical expenditure 205

Pharmacists and pharmacies 207

Pharmaceutical consumption 209

Generics and biosimilars 211

Diagnostic technologies 213

Data and digital 215

Pharmaceutical knowledge and innovation 217

10. Ageing and long-term care 220

Demographic trends 221

Life expectancy and healthy life expectancy at older ages 223

Self-rated health and disability at age 65 and over 225

Dementia 227

Safe long-term care 229

Access to long-term care 231

Informal carers 233

Long-term care workers 235

Long-term care settings 237

Long-term care spending and unit costs 239

End-of-life care 241

Tables 15

Table 1.1. Population health and health system performance: Core indicators across five dimensions 15

Table 1.2. Dashboard on health status, 2023 (unless indicated) 18

Table 1.3. Dashboard on non-medical determinants and risk factors, 2023 (unless indicated) 20

Table 1.4. Dashboard on access to care, 2023 (unless indicated) 22

Table 1.5. Dashboard on quality of care, 2023 (unless indicated) 24

Table 1.6. Dashboard on health system capacity and resources, 2023 (unless indicated) 26

Table 1.7. Possible indicators on cross-cutting dimensions of efficiency, equity, sustainability and resilience 29

Table 2.1. Differences in mortality by disease reveal distinct drivers of mortality for men and women 35

Table 2.2. Measured in potential years of life lost, cancer in women and external causes (including suicide) in men are the leading killers 36

Table 2.3. Dashboard on protective and risk factors for health, 2023 (or nearest year) 47

Figures 16

Figure 1.1. Interpretation of quadrant charts: Health expenditure and health outcome variables 16

Figure 1.2. Health status across the OECD, 2023 (or nearest year) 17

Figure 1.3. Risk factors for health across the OECD, 2023 (or nearest year) 19

Figure 1.4. Access to care across the OECD, 2023 (or nearest year) 21

Figure 1.5. Quality of care across the OECD, 2023 (or nearest year) 23

Figure 1.6. Health system capacity and resources across the OECD, 2023 (or nearest year) 25

Figure 1.7. Association between health spending and health outcome indicators 27

Figure 1.8. Association between health spending and access and quality indicators 28

Figure 2.1. Life expectancy differences at birth between women and men show more than three-fold variation across OECD countries 33

Figure 2.2. There is five-fold variation in the life expectancy gap at age 65 between men and women, from about 1 to over 5 years 33

Figure 2.3. Gender life expectancy gaps narrowed in most OECD countries between 2013 and 2023, but widened in eight 34

Figure 2.4. Men face about 50% more cardiovascular disease mortality risk than women 37

Figure 2.5. Cancer mortality across OECD countries, 2023 (or nearest year) 37

Figure 2.6. Main causes of cancer mortality differ between men and women across OECD countries, 2023 (or nearest year) 38

Figure 2.7. The most common cancers vary by age group between men and women 39

Figure 2.8. Suicide rates remain two to eight times higher for men than women 40

Figure 2.9. Women are more likely to be admitted to hospital due to self-harm 40

Figure 2.10. Life expectancy with activity limitation and healthy life years at age 60, 2021 42

Figure 2.11. Women report lower levels of well-being compared to men in most countries participating in PaRIS 43

Figure 2.12. Women report lower levels of social functioning compared to men in most countries participating in PaRIS 44

Figure 2.13. Moderate or severe symptoms of depression are more common in women across all countries, 2019 (or nearest year) 45

Figure 2.14. Related chronic conditions are more common in men, whereas unrelated chronic conditions predominate among women 46

Figure 2.15. Differences in general health between mid/high and low education levels vary more than four-fold between OECD PaRIS countries 49

Figure 2.16. Heart attack 30-day mortality rates, 2023 (or nearest year) 50

Figure 2.17. Ischaemic stroke 30-day mortality rates, 2023 (or nearest year) 50

Figure 2.18. While gender differences in experiences with quality of care are small, fewer women than men have trust in the healthcare system 51

Figure 3.1. Life expectancy at birth (2023 or nearest year) and changes over time (2010-2019 and 2019-2023) 60

Figure 3.2. Main causes of mortality across 37 OECD countries, 2023 (or nearest year) 62

Figure 3.3. Main causes of mortality by country, 2023 (or nearest year) 62

Figure 3.4. Mortality from avoidable causes, 2023 (or nearest year) 64

Figure 3.5. Mortality from preventable causes, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 64

Figure 3.6. Mortality from treatable causes, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 64

Figure 3.7. Mortality from circulatory diseases, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 66

Figure 3.8. Main causes of cancer incidence and mortality across OECD countries, 2022 68

Figure 3.9. Cancer incidence, 2022 68

Figure 3.10. Cancer mortality, 2023 (or nearest year) 68

Figure 3.11. Maternal mortality, 2021-2023 and 2011-2013 (or nearest year) 70

Figure 3.12. Infant mortality, 2021-2023 and 2011-2013 (or nearest year) 70

Figure 3.13. Share of 15-year-olds reporting multiple health complaints, 2022 and 2014 72

Figure 3.14. Share of 15-year-olds reporting multiple health complaints, 2022 72

Figure 3.15. WHO-5 mental well-being score, 15-year-olds, 2022 72

Figure 3.16. People reporting a long-standing illness or health problem, by income quintile, 2024 (or nearest year) 74

Figure 3.17. Type 1 and 2 diabetes prevalence among adults, 2022 and 2012 74

Figure 3.18. Primary care users aged 45 and over and number of chronic conditions, 2024 74

Figure 3.19. WHO-5 well-being score among primary care users aged 45 and over, with and without chronic conditions, 2024 76

Figure 3.20. Deaths by suicide, 2023 (or nearest year) 76

Figure 3.21. Hospitalisations due to self-harm, 2023 76

Figure 3.22. People aged 15 and over rating their own health as bad or very bad, 2024 (or nearest year) 78

Figure 3.23. People aged 15 and over rating their own health as good or very good, by income quintile, 2023 (or nearest year) 78

Figure 3.24. Primary care users aged 45 and over reporting their health as good, very good or excellent, 2024 78

Figure 4.1. Daily smokers among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 82

Figure 4.2. Daily smoking rates among people aged 15 and over, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 82

Figure 4.3. Regular use of vaping products among people aged 15 and over, 2023 and 2016 (or nearest year) 82

Figure 4.4. Illicit drug use in the last 12 months among people aged 15-64, 2023 (or nearest year) 84

Figure 4.5. Cocaine use in the last 12 months among people aged 15-64, 2023 (or nearest year) 84

Figure 4.6. Opioid use in the last 12 months among people aged 15-64, 2023 (or nearest year) 84

Figure 4.7. Cigarette smoking among 15-year-olds, 2022 and 2014 86

Figure 4.8. Vaping among 15-year-olds, 2022 86

Figure 4.9. Cannabis smoking among 15-year-olds, 2022 and 2014 86

Figure 4.10. Overall alcohol consumption among people aged 15 and over, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 88

Figure 4.11. Heavy episodic drinking among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 88

Figure 4.12. Alcohol consumption among adolescents, 2022 90

Figure 4.13. Repeated drunkenness among 15-year-olds, 2022 90

Figure 4.14. Daily vegetable consumption among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 92

Figure 4.15. Daily consumption of sugary soft drinks among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 92

Figure 4.16. Insufficient physical activity among adults, 2022 92

Figure 4.17. Share of 15-year-olds reporting at least one hour of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily, 2022 and 2014 94

Figure 4.18. Share of 15-year-olds not consuming any vegetables daily, 2022 and 2014 94

Figure 4.19. Share of 15-year-olds consuming sugary soft drinks daily, 2022 and 2014 94

Figure 4.20. Trends in self-reported obesity rates among people aged 15 and over 96

Figure 4.21. Self-reported overweight and obesity rates among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 96

Figure 4.22. Measured overweight and obesity rates among people aged 15 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 96

Figure 4.23. Self-reported overweight and obesity rates among 15-year-olds, 2022 98

Figure 4.24. Self-reported overweight and obesity rates among adolescents by family affluence, 2022 98

Figure 4.25. Mean population-weighted exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM2.5), 2020 100

Figure 4.26. Share of all greenhouse gas emissions related to healthcare demand, 2018 100

Figure 5.1. Population coverage for a core set of services, 2024 (or nearest year) 104

Figure 5.2. Population satisfied with availability of quality healthcare in area where they live, 2024 and 2014 104

Figure 5.3. Voluntary private health insurance coverage by type, 2023-2024 and 2014 (or nearest year) 104

Figure 5.4. Population reporting unmet needs for medical care, by main reason, 2024 106

Figure 5.5. Population reporting unmet needs for medical care, by income level, 2024 (or nearest year) 106

Figure 5.6. Population reporting unmet needs for dental care, by income level, 2024 (or nearest year) 106

Figure 5.7. Extent of financial coverage, 2023 (or nearest year) 108

Figure 5.8. Out-of-pocket spending as a share of final household consumption, 2023 (or nearest year) 110

Figure 5.9. Composition of out-of-pocket spending on health, by type of service, 2023 (or nearest year) 110

Figure 5.10. Share of households with catastrophic health spending by consumption quintile, latest year available 110

Figure 5.11. Waiting times for cataract surgery 112

Figure 5.12. Waiting times for hip replacement surgery 112

Figure 5.13. Waiting times for appointment with a GP or nurse, or a specialist, 2023 112

Figure 5.14. Physician density, metropolitan and remote areas, 2023-2024 (or nearest year) 114

Figure 5.15. People unable to reach a hospital within 45 minutes' drive, by locality, 2023 114

Figure 5.16. In-person doctor consultations per person, 2023, 2019 and 2013 (or nearest year) 116

Figure 5.17. Doctor consultations, in-person vs. remote, 2023 (or nearest year) 116

Figure 5.18. Estimated number of in-person consultations per doctor, 2023 (or nearest year) 116

Figure 5.19. Hospital beds, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 118

Figure 5.20. Occupancy rate of curative acute care beds, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 118

Figure 5.21. Adult intensive care beds, 2023 and 2019 (or nearest year) 118

Figure 5.22. Hospital discharge rates, 2023 and 2019 (or nearest year) 120

Figure 5.23. Average length of stay in hospital for curative (acute) care, 2023 and 2019 (or nearest year) 120

Figure 5.24. Emergency department visits, 2023 and 2019 120

Figure 5.25. Hip and knee replacement surgery, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 122

Figure 5.26. Share of surgical procedures carried out as ambulatory cases, 2023 (or nearest year) 124

Figure 5.27. Trends in surgical procedures carried out as ambulatory cases, selected countries, 2013-2023 124

Figure 6.1. Percentage of eligible children who have received two doses of a measles-containing vaccine and three doses of the diphtheria,... 128

Figure 6.2. Percentage of population aged 65 and over vaccinated against influenza, 2024 and 2019 (or nearest year) 128

Figure 6.3. Mammography screening within the past two years, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 130

Figure 6.4. Cervical cancer screening coverage, 2023 (or nearest year) 130

Figure 6.5. Colorectal cancer screening coverage, 2023 (or nearest year) 130

Figure 6.6. Total volume of antibiotics prescribed in the community setting, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 132

Figure 6.7. Total volume of opioids prescribed in the adult population, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 132

Figure 6.8. Polypharmacy among primary care users with chronic conditions, 2024 132

Figure 6.9. Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospital admissions in adults, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 134

Figure 6.10. Congestive heart failure hospital admissions in adults, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 134

Figure 6.11. Diabetes hospital admissions in adults, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 134

Figure 6.12. People with diabetes prescribed recommended antihypertensive medication, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 136

Figure 6.13. Major and minor lower extremity amputation in adults with diabetes, 2023 (or nearest year) 136

Figure 6.14. Primary care users who are confident in self-management, 2024 136

Figure 6.15. Experienced quality of primary care, 2024 138

Figure 6.16. Trust in healthcare professionals among primary care users, 2024 138

Figure 6.17. Person-centredness and experienced co-ordination among primary care users with chronic conditions, 2024 138

Figure 6.18. Health workers' perceptions of handoffs and information exchange, 2023 (or nearest year) 140

Figure 6.19. Health workers' perceptions of adequate staff levels and work pace, by job category, 2023 (or nearest year) 140

Figure 6.20. Primary care users reporting that something went wrong over the course of their care in the last 12 months, 2024 140

Figure 6.21. Hip fracture surgery initiation for patients aged 65 and over within two days of hospital admission, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 142

Figure 6.22. Obstetric trauma in vaginal delivery without instrument assistance, 2023 (or nearest year) 142

Figure 6.23. Healthcare workers' perceptions of fairness of response to error, 2024 (or nearest year) 142

Figure 6.24. Thirty-day mortality after admission to hospital for acute myocardial infarction based on unlinked data, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 144

Figure 6.25. Thirty-day mortality after admission to hospital for acute myocardial infarction based on linked data, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 144

Figure 6.26. Mortality within 24 hours and 30 days of admission to hospital for acute myocardial infarction based on unlinked data, 2023 (or nearest year) 144

Figure 6.27. Thirty-day mortality after admission to hospital for ischaemic stroke based on unlinked data, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 146

Figure 6.28. Thirty-day mortality after admission to hospital for ischaemic stroke based on linked data, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 146

Figure 6.29. Suicide following hospitalisation for a psychiatric disorder, within one year of discharge, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 148

Figure 6.30. Excess mortality from bipolar disorder and schizophrenia compared to the general population, 2023 (or nearest year) 148

Figure 6.31. Inpatient mental health service users involvement in treatment decisions, 2023 (or nearest year) 148

Figure 6.32. Patient-reported outcomes before and after hip replacement surgery, disease-specific measure, 2024 (or nearest year) 150

Figure 6.33. Patient-reported outcomes before and after knee replacement surgery, disease-specific measure, 2024 (or nearest year) 150

Figure 6.34. Patient-reported quality of life before and after hip and knee replacement surgery, generic measure, 2024 (or nearest year) 150

Figure 6.35. Patients with adverse outcomes within one year of discharge after ischaemic stroke and congestive heart failure, 2023 (or nearest year) 152

Figure 6.36. Patients receiving at least one antihypertensive and antithrombotic prescription in the 18 months following discharge after ischaemic stroke, 2023 (or nearest year) 152

Figure 7.1. Health expenditure as a share of GDP, 2024 (or nearest year) 156

Figure 7.2. Annual real growth in per capita health expenditure and GDP, OECD average, 2006-2024 156

Figure 7.3. Health expenditure as a share of GDP, selected countries, 2006-2024 156

Figure 7.4. Health expenditure per capita, 2024 (or nearest year) 158

Figure 7.5. Annual growth in health expenditure per capita (real terms), 2014-2019 and 2019-2024 158

Figure 7.6. Comparative price levels in the health sector, 2023 (OECD average = 100) 160

Figure 7.7. Estimated healthcare volumes per capita, 2023 (OECD average = 100) 160

Figure 7.8. Healthcare price levels compared to economy-wide price levels, 2023 (OECD average = 100) 160

Figure 7.9. Health expenditure by type of financing, 2023 (or nearest year) 162

Figure 7.10. Annual growth in per capita health expenditure by type of financing (real terms), OECD average, 2017-2019, 2019-2021, and 2021-2023 162

Figure 7.11. Health expenditure from public sources as a share of total health expenditure, 2023 (or nearest year) 164

Figure 7.12. Health expenditure from public sources as a share of total government expenditure, 2013 and 2023 (or nearest year) 164

Figure 7.13. Financing sources of compulsory health insurance, 2023 (or nearest year) 164

Figure 7.14. Health expenditure by type of service, 2023 (or nearest year) 166

Figure 7.15. Annual growth in health expenditure for selected services (real terms), OECD average, 2017‑19, 2019-2021, and 2021‑23 166

Figure 7.16. Spending on primary healthcare services as a share of current health expenditure, 2023 (or nearest year) 168

Figure 7.17. Spending on prevention as a share of current health expenditure, 2013, 2021 and 2023 (or nearest year) 168

Figure 7.18. Health expenditure by provider, 2023 (or nearest year) 170

Figure 7.19. Hospital expenditure by type of service, 2023 (or nearest year) 170

Figure 7.20. Annual capital expenditure in health and social work as a share of GDP, average 2021-2024 (or nearest year) by type of asset 172

Figure 7.21. Trends in capital expenditure as a share of GDP, OECD and selected countries, 2013-2023 172

Figure 7.22. Estimated domestic spending on prevention, preparedness and response per capita, 2013, 2019 and 2023 174

Figure 7.23. Estimated spending on prevention, preparedness and response per capita, by country income group, 2022 174

Figure 7.24. Bilateral ODA commitments for health, 2023 174

Figure 7.25. Observed and projected annual growth in per capita health spending from public sources (real terms), 2001-2023 and 2024-2045 176

Figure 7.26. Observed and projected health spending from public sources as a share of GDP 176

Figure 7.27. Projected increase of health spending from public sources in 2045 under different projection scenarios (OECD average) 176

Figure 8.1. Employment in health and social work as a share of total employment, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 180

Figure 8.2. Employment growth by sector, OECD average, 2013-2023 (or nearest year) 180

Figure 8.3. Share of women in health and social work, 2023 (or nearest year) 180

Figure 8.4. Practising doctors per 1,000 population, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 182

Figure 8.5. Doctor density by Territorial Level 2 regions, 2023 (or nearest year) 182

Figure 8.6. Share of doctors aged 55 and older, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 184

Figure 8.7. Share of female doctors, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 184

Figure 8.8. Share of different categories of doctors, 2023 (or nearest year) 184

Figure 8.9. Remuneration of general practitioners, 2023 (or nearest year) 186

Figure 8.10. Average annual growth in remuneration of GPs and specialists (real terms), 2013-2023 (or nearest year) 186

Figure 8.11. Remuneration of specialists, 2023 (or nearest year) 188

Figure 8.12. Remuneration of different categories of specialists compared to general practitioners, 2023 (or nearest year) 188

Figure 8.13. Practising nurses per 1,000 population, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 190

Figure 8.14. Ratio of nurses per doctor, 2023 (or nearest year) 190

Figure 8.15. Remuneration of hospital nurses, 2023 (or nearest year) 192

Figure 8.16. Average annual growth in remuneration of hospital nurses (real terms), 2019-2023 and 2013-2019 (or nearest year) 192

Figure 8.17. Hospital workforce per 1,000 population, 2023 (or nearest year) 194

Figure 8.18. Growth in number of hospital nurses, selected OECD countries, 2013-2023 194

Figure 8.19. Medical graduates, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 196

Figure 8.20. Share of postgraduate training places in general medicine, 2023 196

Figure 8.21. Nursing graduates, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 198

Figure 8.22. Interest in a nursing career among 15-year-old students, 2022 and 2018 198

Figure 8.23. Share of foreign-trained doctors, 2023 and 2010 (or nearest years) 200

Figure 8.24. Contribution of foreign-trained doctors to physician workforce growth, 2010-2023 (or nearest years) 200

Figure 8.25. Evolution of annual inflows of foreign-trained doctors, selected OECD countries, 2010 2023 200

Figure 8.26. Share of foreign-trained nurses, 2023 and 2010 (or nearest years) 202

Figure 8.27. Contribution of foreign-trained nurses to nursing workforce growth, 2010-2023 (or nearest years) 202

Figure 8.28. Evolution of annual inflows of foreign-trained nurses, selected OECD countries, 2010-2023 202

Figure 9.1. Expenditure on retail pharmaceuticals per capita, 2023 (or nearest year) 206

Figure 9.2. Expenditure on retail pharmaceuticals by type of financing, 2023 (or nearest year) 206

Figure 9.3. Non-retail pharmaceutical expenditures as a share of total pharmaceutical expenditure, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 206

Figure 9.4. Practising pharmacists, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 208

Figure 9.5. Community pharmacies, 2023 (or nearest year) 208

Figure 9.6. Consumption of medicines for selected chronic conditions, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 210

Figure 9.7. Share of generics in the pharmaceutical market by volume, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 212

Figure 9.8. Share of generics in the pharmaceutical market by value, 2023 (or nearest year) 212

Figure 9.9. Market share of biosimilars in biologic market in ten key therapy areas, 2023 212

Figure 9.10. CT scanners, MRI units and PET scanners, 2023 (or nearest year) 214

Figure 9.11. CT, MRI and PET exams, 2023 (or nearest year) 214

Figure 9.12. Trends in use of diagnostic technologies, selected countries, 2013-2023 214

Figure 9.13. Access to electronic health records, 2024 216

Figure 9.14. Digital health literacy scores by education among primary care users aged 45 and over, 2024 216

Figure 9.15. Doctor teleconsultations per person, 2023, 2021 and 2019 216

Figure 9.16. Business expenditure on pharmaceutical R&D and government budgets allocated to health-related R&D, 2022 or latest year available 218

Figure 9.17. Pharmaceutical R&D as a share of business expenditure on R&D, 2022 or nearest year 218

Figure 9.18. Top health categories for medicines in active development worldwide, 2013-2023 218

Figure 10.1. Share of the population aged 65 and over and 80 and over, 2050 and 2023 222

Figure 10.2. Life expectancy at age 65, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 224

Figure 10.3. Healthy life expectancy at age 60, 2021 224

Figure 10.4. People aged 65 and over rating their health as poor or very poor, by income quintile, 2024 (or nearest year) 226

Figure 10.5. Activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living limitations in adults aged 65 and over, 2021-2022 (or nearest year) 226

Figure 10.6. Primary care users aged 65 and over with at least one chronic condition reporting their social functioning as good, very good or excellent, 2024 226

Figure 10.7. Estimated and registered dementia prevalence among people aged 65 and over, 2023 (or nearest year) 228

Figure 10.8. Antipsychotic prescribing rates, 2024 (or nearest year) 228

Figure 10.9. Prevalence of healthcare-associated infections per 100 residents in long-term care facilities, 2023-2024 230

Figure 10.10. Benzodiazepine use per 1,000 patients aged 65 and over, 2024 and 2014 (or nearest year) 230

Figure 10.11. People aged 75 and over taking more than five medications concurrently, 2024 and 2014 (or nearest year) 230

Figure 10.12. People aged 65 and over receiving long-term care, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 232

Figure 10.13. Long-term care recipients aged 65 and over receiving care at home, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 232

Figure 10.14. Unmet long-term care needs among people living at home aged 65 and above with some limitations in activities of daily living, 2021-2022 232

Figure 10.15. People aged 50 and above providing informal care, 2021-2022 (or nearest year) 234

Figure 10.16. Share of informal daily carers who are women, 2021-2022 (or nearest year) 234

Figure 10.17. Share of informal daily carers that also work, 2021-2022 (or nearest year) 234

Figure 10.18. Long-term care workers per 100 people aged 65 and over, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 236

Figure 10.19. Share of long-term care workers who work part time or on fixed-term contracts, 2023 (or nearest year) 236

Figure 10.20. Share of long-term care workers who are foreign-born, 2024 and 2014 236

Figure 10.21. Long-term care beds in institutions and hospitals, 2023 and 2013 (or nearest year) 238

Figure 10.22. Long-term care beds by ownership, 2023 (or nearest year) 238

Figure 10.23. Total long-term care spending as a share of gross domestic product, 2023 (or nearest year) 240

Figure 10.24. Total long-term care spending by provider, 2023 (or nearest year) 240

Figure 10.25. Costs of long-term care for people aged 65 and over with severe needs, as a share of median income, 2024-2025 (or nearest year) 240

Figure 10.26. Share of deaths occurring in hospitals, 2023 and 2018 (or nearest year) 242

Figure 10.27. Place of death, 2019-2020 (or nearest year) 242

Boxes 43

Box 2.1. OECD PaRIS: the Patient-Reported Indicator Surveys 43