Executive summary 5

Introduction 7

Attitudes, Loyalties and Alignment in Multilateral Arenas 9

Alignment in the United Nations 9

Alignment with EU positions and restrictive measures 11

Engagement in Chinese-led multilateral initiatives 12

What’s Driving (Non-)Alignment? 14

Bilateral relations with China 14

Domestic, regional and global political factors 19

Conclusions 23

SEE positions in international fora 23

Receptiveness to Chinese initiatives and bilateral ties 23

Implications for strengthening the EU’s global role 24

Policy Recommendations 25

Endnotes 28