Summary 5

A New Nuclear Era in Europe 7

The Russia Challenge: Deterring a Revisionist Nuclear Power 11

The Trump Shock: Doubts About the US Security Commitment to Europe 17

Europe’s Nuclear Options 21

Option A: Doubling Down on US Extended Nuclear Deterrence 22

Option B: Increasing the French and British Role in Europe’s Nuclear Deterrence 28

Option C: Developing a Eurodeterrent 36

Option D: Acquiring New Independent Nuclear Arsenals 41

Option E: Focusing on Conventional Deterrence 48

Choosing Among Bad Options 55

Appendix 59

Endnotes 59

List of Figures 64

Image Sources 66

List of Abbreviations 67

The European Nuclear Study Group 68

Disclaimer and Acknowledgments 69

About 70