List of abbreviations  1

Executive Summary  3

1 Introduction  6

2 Geopolitical action in the EU  9

2.1 The EU’s effectiveness on the global stage  11

2.2 The EU’s coherence in its actions abroad  12

3 An evolving foreign policy field  15

3.1 The geopoliticisation of EU policy  15

3.2 The decline of the international rules-based order  17

3.3 A changed EU foreign policy conduct?  19

4 An evolving institutional architecture  21

4.1 The New Duo in Town: The EUCO and Commission  21

4.2 Strategic centralisation of and within the Commission  25

5 Initiatives for an effective and coherent foreign policy  27

5.1 A stronger but more cooperative Commission  28

5.2 An EEAS with a clearer yet more facilitative role  31

5.3 Stronger coordination between Team Europe and Team National partners  34

5.4 Maximising the potential of a multi-speed Europe  35

5.5 Accelerating decision-making in the EU by reducing the risk of vetoes  37

5.6 Stronger democratic scrutiny by the EP  41

6 Conclusions and recommendations  43