Title page 1

Contents 5

Executive Summary 7

Introduction 9

Subnational Diplomacy and National Security 12

Transnational Criminal Organizations (TCOs) 16

Threat Assessment 16

Coordination Mechanisms and Governance Challenges 17

Cyber 23

Threat Assessment 23

Coordination Mechanisms and Governance Challenges 26

U.S.-China 28

Threat Assessment 28

Coordination Mechanisms and Governance Challenges 31

Cross-Cutting Case Studies 34

New York City 34

Houston 36

Des Moines 37

San Francisco 39

Recommendations 42

Conclusion 46

Endnotes 48

Appendix 1: Interview Table 55

Figures 19

Figure 1. Country and Municipality 287(g) Agreements 19