FOREWORD 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12

I. INTRODUCTION 15

I.1. Rationale for an ethics-based approach 16

I.2. The approach of the report 17

II. UNDERSTANDING QUANTUM COMPUTING 19

II.1. From classical to quantum computing: superposition and

entanglement 20

II.2. The building blocks of quantum computation: quantum gates and

circuits 21

II.3. Overcoming fragility: decoherence and quantum error correction 22

II.4. Common misconceptions about quantum computing 23

III. ON THE ETHICS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING 25

Security and privacy risks 26

Inadequate assessment of opportunities and risks 27

Misuse and dual-use dilemmas 28

Labour and employment 28

Protection of the environment and ecosystems 29

Knowledge asymmetry and democratic governance 30

10

Report of COMEST on the Ethics of Quantum Computing

Representational exclusion in ethical discourse 30

Quantum divide 31

Diverse worldviews and metaphysics 32

IV. ON OPPORTUNITIES, RISKS AND HARMS OF QUANTUM

COMPUTING 33

IV.1. Opportunities of quantum computing 34

IV.2. Risks and harms of quantum computing 36

V. IMPLEMENTING ETHICAL APPROACHES IN QUANTUM

COMPUTING 39

V.1. Mitigation strategies for quantum computing risks and harms 40

V.2. Learning from the past 42

V.3. Future-proofing quantum innovation through ethical alignment 43

V.4. Embedding ethics for a responsible quantum future 44

VI. ON THE GOVERNANCE OF QUANTUM COMPUTING 45

VI.1. Normative approaches to quantum computing 46

VI.2. Principles of a governance framework for quantum computing 49

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS 53

VII.1. At the research, development, deployment, implementation and use

level 54

VII.2. At the individual, societal and states level 56

VII.3. At the international community and governance level 57

VII.4. At the level of the Sustainable Development Goals 58

VIII. A STRATEGIC ROADMAP FOR RESPONSIBLE QUANTUM

DEVELOPMENT 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY 68

COMPOSITION OF COMEST (2024-2025) 74