List of abbreviations iii

Tables, boxes and maps iv

Executive Summary v

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Context 1

1.2 Research design and methods 5

2. Energy transition impacts on IPLCs 6

2.1 International regulatory and legal context on the protection of IPLCs 6

2.2 Relevant EU legislation, programmes and strategies 15

3. Case studies 23

3.1 South Africa — Manganese extraction in the Kalahari 24

3.2 Bolivia — Lithium extraction in the Salar de Uyuni 30

3.3 Namibia — Hyphen Green Hydrogen Project 36

3.4 International carbon credits under the 2040 climate target 46

4. Policy recommendations and conclusions 50

4.1 Recommendations 50

4.2 Conclusions 54

References 56