Summary 5

Background 7

Glossary 8

1 What is research and development for defence? 9

1.1 Defining research and development 9

1.2 Technology readiness levels 10

1.3 Timescales 12

1.4 Procurement of ‘novel technologies’ 12

1.5 ‘Dual-use’ technologies 12

1.6 Public attitudes 13

2 Relevant policy 15

2.1 Defence Reform 2024 15

2.2 Strategic Defence Review (SDR) 2025 15

2.3 Defence Industrial Strategy (DIS) 2025 16

2.4 Delayed Defence Investment Plan (DIP) 16

3 How is R&D for defence funded and performed? 18

3.1 Measuring R&D spending 18

3.2 Where does funding for R&D come from? 19

3.3 How are R&D priorities set? 19

3.4 Where is R&D for defence carried out? 20

4 What are the challenges for defence R&D? 24

4.1 Skills gaps 24

4.2 Scaling R&D projects: The ‘valley of death’ 24

4.3 Integrating new technologies 24

4.4 Overspecification 25

4.5 Relationship between SMEs and the MOD 25

5 International projects and comparisons 27

5.1 International R&D projects 27

5.2 What do other countries spend on R&D? 28

5.3 International approaches to defence R&D 29

References 31

Contributors 39