Contents Summary iii

Figures and Tables vii

Chapter 1. Introduction and Year One Overview 1

The Problem of Duality in Space and the Need for Norms or Governance 2

Duality in Space Year One Review 3

Report Overview, Key Findings, and Recommendations 7

Chapter 2. The Current and Future Landscape of Dual-Use Space Systems 11

Stakeholders Broadly View Most or All Current Space Systems as Dual Use 11

Investments Are Trending Toward Established Space Systems That Support Earth-Based Activities and Other Emerging Technologies 13

The Space System Stakeholder Ecosystem Includes Nations with Varying Technical Capacity and System Access, Multilateral Actors, Private Industry, and International Partnerships 17

Chapter 3. The Challenge of Defining Dual-Use Space Systems 21

Dual Use Lacks a Widely Shared Definition 21

Ambiguities and Uncertainty Could Affect Norms or Governance Development 23

Chapter 4. The Current Landscape of Norms and Governance Efforts and Future Considerations 27

Domestic Approaches to Dual-Use Space Systems Are Broadly Informal or Ambiguous 28

Regions Diverge in Their Perspectives on Current Governance Tools 30

Stakeholders Perceive Value in Behavior-Based Norms and TCBMs 32

Practical Implementation Challenges and Power Asymmetries Could Impede Effective Governance 34

Chapter 5. Findings and Recommendations for Dual-Use Space System Governance 37

The Need for a Behavior- and Effect-Based Framework 38

Broad Inclusion of Space System Stakeholders 40

Addressing the Innovation-Governance Lag 41

Conclusion 41

Appendix A. Nations' Reliance on Private Industry to Support Space System Development and Deployment 43

Appendix B. Nations' Involvement in International Partnerships to Develop and Deploy Dual-Use Space Systems 47

Appendix C. Nations' Policy Approaches to Dual-Use Space System Governance 51

Appendix D. Nations' Governance Models for National Space Activities 55

Abbreviations 58

References 60

About This Report 63