Editorial 3

Acknowledgements 5

Executive Summary 8

One in three adults has weak foundational skills 8

Adults with low foundational skills are not a homogeneous group 8

Adult learning systems fail the people who need them most 8

The profile of the low-skilled population matters for policy 9

What the evidence requires from policymakers 9

1 How many adults have low skills, and why does it matter? 10

How are foundational skills assessed? 12

Are there more adults with low skills than a decade ago? 16

What are the economic and non-economic consequences of low skills? 19

References 28

Notes 29

2 Do countries face different low-skill challenges? 31

Introduction 33

How broad are foundational skill deficits? 33

How deep are foundational skill deficits? 35

Do countries face fundamentally different challenges? 45

References 48

Notes 49

3 Who are the adults with low foundational skills? 50

Introduction 51

Who has low literacy or numeracy skills? 52

A closer look at the characteristics of adults with low skills and their economic and noneconomic outcomes 58

Barriers to participation in adult education and training for adults living with low skills 65

References 67

Notes 68

4 What can policy do to support adults with low foundational skills? 70

Introduction 72

What is the rationale for policy intervention? 72

What are the features of successful policy design? 76

What enabling conditions support learning success? 79

How does the nature of the challenge shape the policy response? 86

References 90