Title page 1

Contents 3

Highlights 2

Letter 6

Background 10

Water Infrastructure in Rural Communities 10

Federal and State Drinking Water and Wastewater Regulation 13

Financial and Technical Assistance for Rural Water Infrastructure 14

Prior GAO Work on Federal Coordination for Rural Water Infrastructure 15

USDA and EPA Have Limited Data on Rural Unserved Communities but Could Access More Information Through Recent Data Sources 16

USDA and EPA Have Limited Data on Rural Unserved Communities 16

Recent Data Sources May Provide More Complete Information on Rural Unserved Communities 20

Several USDA and EPA Programs Can Assist Rural Unserved Communities with Their Water Infrastructure Needs 21

Programs That Focus on Rural Unserved Communities 21

Other Programs That Can Assist Rural Unserved Communities 22

Programs That Can Prioritize Rural Unserved Communities in Award Decisions 24

Rural Unserved Communities Face Multiple Challenges Accessing Technical and Financial Assistance 26

Communities Face Challenges with Accessing Financial and Technical Assistance 26

USDA, EPA, and States Have Taken Actions That Can Help Rural Unserved Communities Access Assistance 33

Monitoring Implementation of a Joint Memorandum Could Further Address Rural Unserved Communities' Challenges 36

Monitoring Effectiveness of EPA's Technical Assistance to Rural Unserved Communities Could Enable Improvements 38

Conclusions 40

Recommendations 41

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 41

Appendix I. Information on the Costs for Water Infrastructure Projects in Rural Communities 44

Appendix II. Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 48

Appendix III. Information on Communities That Participated in the Closing America's Wastewater Access Gap Initiative Pilot 54

Appendix IV. USDA and EPA Programs That Can Provide Financial or Technical Assistance to Rural Unserved Communities 57

Appendix V. Profiles of Selected Rural Unserved Communities 62

Appendix VI. Comments from the U.S. Department of Agriculture 71

Appendix VII. Comments from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 73

Appendix VIII. GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 76

Table 1. Average Estimated Project Costs by Category for Rural Water Infrastructure Projects That Received USDA Grants or Loans, Fiscal Years 2023-2024 45

Table 2. Information on Communities Participating in the Closing America's Wastewater Access Gap Initiative Pilot 54

Table 3. USDA Rural Development Programs That Can Provide Financial or Technical Assistance for Water Infrastructure for Rural Unserved Communities,... 57

Table 4. EPA Programs That Can Provide Financial or Technical Assistance for Water Infrastructure for Rural Unserved Communities, as of December 2025 59

Figure 1. Examples of Centralized and Decentralized Water Infrastructure 11

Figure 2. Examples of Inadequate or Failing Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment Practices or Systems 12

Figure 3. Communities Participating in EPA's Closing America's Wastewater Access Gap Initiative, as of December 2025 18

Figure 4. Sewage Saturates the Yard of a Rural Alabama Home Without Wastewater Services, September 2024 19

Figure 5. Construction of a Sewer to Bring Wastewater Treatment to a Rural Unserved Community in West Virginia 24

Figure 6. Examples of Challenges Rural Unserved Communities Face in Accessing Financial and Technical Assistance for Water Infrastructure Projects 26

Figure 7. Installation of a Septic System at a Rural Home in Alabama 63

Figure 8. Drinking Water Infrastructure in Unserved Communities in Rural New Mexico 65

Figure 9. West Virginia Communities Unserved by Wastewater Infrastructure 67

Figure 10. Wastewater Treatment Emergency in Santo Domingo Pueblo 69