Title page 1

Contents 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6

INTRODUCTION 9

PART 1. INFORMATION WARFARE, LLMS AND GEO COLLIDE 12

CHAPTER 1. THE RISE OF INFORMATION WARFARE 13

1.1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WARFARE AND INFORMATION 13

1.2. RECOGNITION OF THE INFORMATION ENVIRONMENT AS 'AN ARENA OF WAR' 13

1.3. FOREIGN INFORMATION MANIPULATION AND INTERFERENCE (FIMI) - THE NEW FRONTIER 14

CHAPTER 2. THE RISE OF LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS IN OUR INFORMATION SUPPLY CHAIN 16

2.1. WHAT IS A LARGE LANGUAGE MODEL (LLM)? 16

2.2. RAPID ADOPTION OF LLM-POWERED AI SERVICES IN THE UK 17

2.3. EVOLUTION OF USE CASES: FROM TOOL TO AUTHORITY FIGURE 17

2.4. HOW ARE LLMS TRAINED USING DATA? 21

2.5. HOW CAN LLMS BE MANIPULATED? 21

CHAPTER 3. THE RISE OF GEO 23

3.1. THE EMERGENCE OF GEO 23

3.2. THE GROWING MARKET OF GEO-PROVIDERS 24

3.3. GEO SERVICES 24

3.4. GEO EFFECTIVENESS 27

3.5. STATE ACTORS DEPLOYING GEO TECHNIQUES IN FOREIGN JURISDICTIONS 27

3.6. EXISTING POLICIES TO PREVENT NEFARIOUS USE OF GEO TECHNIQUES AND LLM MANIPULATION 29

PART 2. THE EVIDENCE 31

CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY: RUSSIAN INTERFERENCE 32

4.1. BACKGROUND: THE FOUNDATION TO BATTLE INJUSTICE (r-FBI) 32

4.2. METHODOLOGY 34

4.3/4.2. THE EVIDENCE: THE AI VISIBILITY OF THE R-FBI 36

4.4/4.3. THE EVIDENCE: GEO TECHNIQUES USED BY THE r-FBI 39

4.5/4.4. THE EVIDENCE: A SELF-REINFORCING FIMI ECOSYSTEM 42

RECOMMENDATIONS 46

CONCLUSION 52

APPENDIX 53

1. METHODOLOGY 53

2. GEO TECHNIQUES 56

3. GEO COMPANIES 58

TABLE 1. AI'S DISRUPTION OF THE UK INFORMATION SUPPLY CHAIN TODAY (REFLECTING ADOPTION BY 'EVERY-DAY USERS') 19

TABLE 2. POTENTIAL FOR AI'S DISRUPTION OF THE UK INFORMATION SUPPLY CHAIN IN THE FUTURE 20

TABLE 3. LLM CITATION COUNT AND SHARE BY DOMAIN 42

FIGURE 1. NETWORK STRUCTURE 42

Charts 36

CHART 1. PROPORTION OF RESPONSES BY CATEGORY 36

CHART 2. MODEL RESPONSES BY LANGUAGE 37

CHART 3. MODEL RESPONSES BY MODEL: PREFERABLE RESPONSES ONLY 38

CHART 4. MODEL RESPONSES BY MODEL: NEUTRAL OR SUCCESSFUL INFORMATION INTERFERENCE RESPONSES ONLY 39

CHART 5. PROPORTION OF r-FBI CITED SOURCES WHERE DIFFERENT GEO TECHNIQUES COULD BE DETECTED 40

CHART 6. LLM CITATION COUNT DISTRIBUTION BY DOMAIN 44

CHART 7. GEO TECHNIQUE FINGERPRINT BY DOMAIN 45