Abstract  7

Acknowledgements  8

Authors  8

Executive summary  9

Policy context  9

Key conclusions  9

Main findings  9

On what basis are the instruments compared?  9

What does the landscape contain?  10

How do the instruments connect?  10

Related and future Joint Research Centre work  10

Quick guide  10

1. Introduction and Conceptual Framework  11

1.1. Typology of Skills Mismatch  12

1.1.1. Qualification Mismatch  13

1.1.2. Skills Mismatch  14

1.2. Basic framework to organise data and indicators  15

1.3. Skills Taxonomies  17

1.4. Data gaps: General Remarks  18

2. Eurostat-Based Indicators and Data Sources  20

2.1. EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS)  20

2.1.1. Description  20

2.1.2. Measurement Methodology  21

2.1.3. Key Published Indicators  21

2.1.4. Strengths  23

2.1.5. Limitations  23

2.2. Job Vacancy Statistics (JVS)  24

2.2.1. Description  24

2.2.2. Methodology  24

2.2.3. Key Published Indicators  25

2.2.4. Strengths  25

2.2.5. Limitations  25

2.3. Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS)  26

2.3.1. Description  26

2.3.2. Methodology  26

2.3.3. Strengths  27

2.3.4. Limitations  27

2.4. Adult Education Survey (AES)  27

2.4.1. Description  27

2.4.2. Methodology  27

2.4.3. Key Published Indicators  27

2.4.4. Strengths  28

2.4.5. Limitations  28

2.5. ICT Usage Survey and Digital Skills Indicators  29

2.5.1. Description  29

2.5.2. Methodology  29

2.5.3. Key Published Indicators  29

2.5.4. Strengths  30

2.5.5. Limitations  30

2.6. European Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)  30

2.6.1. Description  30

2.6.2. Methodology  30

2.6.3. Strengths  31

2.6.4. Limitations  31

2.7. Web Intelligence Hub (WIH) and Experimental Job Statistics  32

2.7.1. Web Intelligence Hub (WIH)  32

2.7.1.1. Description and methodology  32

2.7.1.2. Strengths  32

2.7.1.3. Limitations  32

2.7.2. Experimental Statistics  33

3. The Cedefop Skills Intelligence System  34

3.1. Introduction  34

3.2. Cedefop Skills Forecast  35

3.2.1. Key Published Indicators  35

3.2.2. Strengths  38

3.2.3. Limitations  38

3.3. Skills-OVATE (Online Vacancy Analysis Tool for Europe)  39

3.3.1. Scope and Coverage  39

3.3.2. Variables and Granularity  39

3.3.3. Strengths  39

3.3.4. Limitations  40

3.4. European Skills and Jobs Survey (ESJS)  41

3.4.1. Key Published Indicators  41

3.4.2. Strengths  44

3.4.3. Limitations  44

3.5. European Training and Learning Survey (ETLS)  45

3.5.1. Description  45

3.5.2. Strengths  46

3.5.3. Limitations  46

3.6. Eurostat-Sourced Indicators  46

3.6.1. Employment Group (EU-LFS Core Indicators)  46

3.6.2. Workplace Trends Group (EU-LFS Labour Market Structure Indicators)  48

3.6.3. Over-Qualification Rate of Tertiary Graduates (2011-2023)  48

3.6.3.1. Limitations  49

3.6.4. Unemployment Indicators (LFS-Based)  49

3.6.5. Digital Skills Level  50

3.6.5.1. Limitations  50

3.6.6. Monthly Gross Income and Relative Monthly Gross Income  50

3.6.6.1. Limitations  50

3.7. Labour Skills Shortage Index (LSSI)  51

3.7.1. Description  51

3.7.2. Methodology  51

3.7.3. Strengths  51

3.7.4. Limitations  51

3.8. Skills Trends and Anticipation System (STAS)  52

3.8.1. Methodology  52

3.8.2. Strengths  52

3.8.3. Limitations  53

3.9. CEDEFOP Talent Gap Index  53

3.10. CEDEFOP Skills Intelligence: Summary Table  53

4. European Labour Authority (ELA) / EURES Labour Shortages and Surpluses Reports  57

4.1. Description  57

4.2. Series History and Institutional Evolution  57

4.3. Methodology  58

4.4. Strengths  59

4.5. Limitations  59

5. Eurofound Data Sources  61

5.1. European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS)  61

5.1.1. Description and methodology  61

5.1.2. Key Variables and Skills-Related Indicators  63

5.1.3. Strengths  64

5.1.4. Limitations  64

5.2. European Company Survey (ECS) (with CEDEFOP)  64

5.2.1. Description, Scope and Coverage  64

5.2.2. Methodology and Key Variables and Granularity  65

5.2.3. Strengths  66

5.2.4. Limitations  66

5.3. Labour Market Change Research – The European Jobs Monitor (EJM)  67

5.3.1. Strengths  67

5.3.2. Limitations  67

5.4. Other Related Data Sources  68

5.4.1. The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS)  68

5.4.2. The Living and Working in the EU e-Survey  68

6. Pact for Skills and Sectoral Intelligence  69

6.1. Large-Scale Skills Partnerships (LSPs)  69

6.1.1. Key LSP examples with skills intelligence outputs  69

6.2. Blueprint Alliances for Sectoral Cooperation on Skills  70

6.2.1. Strengths  70

6.2.2. Limitations  71

6.2.3. Net-Zero Industry Academies and EU Skills Academies  71

7. Other Relevant Sources  73

7.1. Eurobarometer  73

7.1.1. Description  73

7.1.2. Strengths  73

7.1.3. Limitations  73

7.2. European Higher Education Sector Observatory (EHESO)  73

7.2.1. Description  73

7.2.2. Strengths  75

7.2.3. Limitations  76

7.3. Education and Training Monitor  76

7.3.1. Key Indicators in the Education and Training Monitor  76

7.3.2. Primary Data Sources  77

7.3.3. Strengths  77

7.3.4. Limitations  77

7.4. Research and Innovation Careers Observatory (ReICO)  78

7.4.1. Key data dimensions  78

7.4.2. Strengths  78

7.4.3. Limitations  79

7.5. The European Data Space for Skills  79

7.6. The Eurydice network  80

7.6.1. Strengths  80

7.6.2. Limitations  80

7.7. OECD: PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills and PISA  80

7.7.1. Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)  80

7.7.1.1. Description  80

7.7.1.2. Methodological note  81

7.7.1.3. Strengths  81

7.7.1.4. Limitations  81

7.7.2. Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)  81

7.7.2.1. Description  81

7.7.2.2. Methodological note  82

7.7.2.3. Strengths  82

7.7.2.4. Limitations  82

7.8. European Training Foundation (ETF)  83

7.9. Private-sector data: Lightcast, LinkedIn  83

7.9.1. Lightcast  83

7.9.1.1. Strengths  83

7.9.1.2. Limitations  83

7.9.2. LinkedIn Economic Graph  83

7.9.2.1. Limitations  84

7.10. National Administrative Data  84

7.10.1. Strengths of Administrative LEEDs  84

7.10.2. Limitations  85

7.11. EU-funded research Projects (Horizon Europe, Erasmus+)  85

8. Criteria for the Selection of Indicators for the ESIO Dashboard  86

9. Conclusions  89

References  91

List of abbreviations and definitions  94

List of boxes  97

List of tables  98

Annexes  99

Annex 1. EU-Funded Research Projects  99