List of abbreviations v

Executive summary vi

1 Introduction: The EU's Arctic policy at a turning point 1

  1.1 Scope and structure of the paper 3

2 Part I – Setting the scene 4

  2.1 The EU and the Arctic: A brief policy history 4

  2.2 Geopolitical and regional shifts in the Arctic 3 6

3 Part II - Evaluating the 2021 EU Arctic policy 8

  3.1 Priority 1: Protecting the climate and the environment 8

    3.1.1 The EU's climate action and its Arctic dimension 9

    3.1.2 Contaminants in the Arctic 10

    3.1.3 Arctic biodiversity and ocean governance 10

  3.2 Priority 2: Sustainable development 11

    3.2.1 EU funding for Arctic sustainable development and cooperation 11

    3.2.2 Critical raw materials 12

    3.2.3 EU relations with Arctic rightsholders, stakeholders and youth 13

  3.3 Priority 3: Peace, stability and cooperation 14

    3.3.1 The crisis in multilateral Arctic cooperation 14

    3.3.2 Science diplomacy and research: A relative strength 16

    3.3.3  Civil protection and emergency response 16

4 Part III - Strengthening the 2021 framework: Focus on external relations 17

  4.1 Reinforcing climate action and environmental protection 18

  4.2 Deepening sustainable development 19

    4.2.1  Regional development, competitiveness and security 19

    4.2.2  The next EU MFF: Ongoing negotiations 19

    4.2.3  Arctic science diplomacy for challenging times 20

  4.3    Reinvigorating peace, stability and cooperation 21

5 Part IV - Emerging priority areas 23

  5.1 Conceptualising security: Security and defence engagement in the Arctic in the Nordic / NATO nexus 23

  5.2 Operationalising security: Maritime security and domain awareness 26

  5.3 The European Arctic as a whole-of-society preparedness region: Combining strategic security for Europe and viable Arctic communities 28

  5.4 The internal dimensions of EU Arctic policy: Interests, coherence and institutional leadership

6 Recommendations

Recommendation 1: Establish an internal Arctic hub to conduct Arctic impact assessments of EU policies affecting the Arctic 32

  Recommendation 2: Develop a new northern framework 34

  Recommendation 3: Anchor the Arctic in the new ESS 35

  Recommendation 4: Enable more competence on maritime security and hybrid threats linked to Russia 36

  Recommendation 5: Address the Arctic-space regulatory gap 37

  Recommendation 6: Stimulate flagship projects of strategic, economic and local importance across Finland, Norway and Sweden 38

  Recommendation 7: Rethink climate change action as a part of the EU's Arctic policy 39

  Recommendation 8: Science diplomacy 39

Appendix 1: Summary table of recommendations 41

Appendix 2: List of interviewees 44

References 45