Main messages 01-11

  The review 01-07

  Challenges and opportunities 08-11

A closer look 12-83

  A changing context and growing EU ambition 12-31

    Triggers for change 12-19

    Governance framework anchored in the Treaties 20-26

    Increasing level of EU ambition 27-31

  EU actions: moving towards preparedness and an increasingly structured approach 32-54

    Sharp increase in member states’ defence spending and surge in EU financial instruments 32-40

    Updated rules to facilitate access to funds and improve military mobility 41-44

    Evolving governance framework 45-47

    The development of a defence partnership with Ukraine and closer links with NATO and other partners 48-54

  Challenges and opportunities arising from the evolving EU defence policy 55-83

    Developing defence capabilities 55-63

    Challenges linked to funding 64-71

    New approaches to EU defence cooperation and preparedness 72-75

    Complex governance and accountability arrangements 76-83

Annexes

  Annex I – EDIP – an integrated toolbox for EU defence

  Annex II – EU preference clauses in defence funding instruments

  Annex III – Overview of EU funding allocated to defence during the 2021–2027 period by country(1) and by funding instrument as of April 2026

  Annex IV – Relevant ECA publications

Abbreviations

Glossary

ECA team