Summary 1

Recommendations 9

 To South Korea’s National Assembly 9

 To the Ministry of Employment and Labor 10

 To the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family 11

 To the Ministry of Health and Welfare 12

 To Trade Unions 12

Methodology 13

Background 16

 Women and Aging 16

 Women and Work 19

 Responsibility for Protection Against Gender and Age Discrimination at Work 21

 Age-based Employment Policies 22

  Mandatory Retirement Age 22

  Peak Wage System 24

 Pensions 25

I. Accumulating Gender Discrimination Against Women at Work 29

 Impact of Social Norms on Women Entering the Workforce 29

  Education 29

  Hiring 30

 Work Disruption 31

  Limited Opportunities Going Back to Work 34

  Employment Services Perpetuate Harmful Gender Norms 36

 Limited Promotions and Glass Ceilings 38

 Sexual and Other Workplace Harassment 40

  Sexual Harassment After Working Hours 41

  Sexual Harassment During Working Hours 42

  Workplace Bullying 44

 Gender Pay Gap 45

  Systemic, Not Individual 46

  Gap Widens with Age 47

 Gender Pension Gap 49

  Pension Regulations Disadvantage Women 50

  Inadequate National Old Age Pension 53

  Inadequate Basic Pension 57

II. Intersecting Age and Gender Discrimination Against Older Women at Work 59

 Gendered Ageism 59

 Deepening Occupational Segregation 62

  Narrowing Work Opportunities 63

  Government Employment Online Portal Perpetuates Occupational Segregation 65

  Gender Disadvantage in Government Older People’s Employment Program 73

 Precarious Work 75

  Insecure Contracts 75

  Low Wages 76

  Lack of Union Representation 78

 Physical and Mental Harm 79

  Physical Risk 80

  No Support When Health Suffers 80

  Harassment and Violence as Occupational Hazard 81

 Discriminatory Age-based Employment Policies 83

  Mandatory Retirement Age 83

  Peak Wage System 84

III. South Korea’s International Legal Obligations 86

 Relevant International Human Rights Law 86

  Right to Work 86

  Right to Nondiscrimination 86

  Right to Social Security 89

Acknowledgments 91