Editorial 3

Acknowledgements 5

Readers Guide 10

Executive Summary 18

Chapter 1. Teacher shortages and the attractiveness of the teaching profession 21

Part A. The output of educational institutions and the impact of learning 70

Chapter A1. To what level have adults studied? 71

Chapter A2. Transition from education to work: Where are today’s youth? 88

Chapter A3. How does educational attainment affect participation in the labour market?105

Chapter A4. What are the earnings advantages to education? 125

Chapter A5. To what extent do adults participate in education and training? 145

Chapter A6. How are social outcomes related to education? 161

Part B. Access to education, participation and progression 179

Chapter B1. How has participation in early childhood education and care evolved across age groups and countries? 180

Chapter B2. How is school provision organised across education levels? 204

Chapter B3. How do students transition into upper secondary education and what are their outcomes afterwards? 228

Chapter B4. What is the profile of international students and how is mobility evolving? 261

Part C. Financial resources invested in education 284

Chapter C1. Key system-level indicators of education finance 285

Chapter C2. How is early childhood education financed? 305

Chapter C3. How are primary and lower secondary education financed? 317

Chapter C4. How is upper secondary education financed? 332

Chapter C5. How is tertiary education financed? 346

Part D. Teachers, the learning environment and organisation of schools 362

Chapter D2. How do student-teacher ratios and class sizes vary across education levels?364

Chapter D3. How much are teachers and school heads paid? 383

Chapter D4. How much time do teachers spend teaching and working? 412

Chapter D5. What are the main characteristics of the teaching workforce across levels of education? 432

Chapter D6. What school evaluation mechanisms are in place? 456

Chapter D7. What teacher and school head appraisal systems are in place? 480

Annex 1. Characteristics of education systems 511

Annex 2: Reference statistics 514

Contributors to this publication 547