Executive summary 11

  Recommendations by fuel and technology 13

Introduction: Energy security context, framework and overview 17

  ASEAN regional energy profile 17

    Energy demand trends 17

    Composition of the energy mix 18

    Import dependency ratios 19

    Energy intensity and efficiency 22

  Assessment framework and time horizon 23

  Overview of chapters 25

Oil and biofuels security review 27

  Oil demand 28

  Crude and product supply 29

    Oil production 29

    Refining capacity and throughput 30

    Liquid biofuels 31

  Five-year outlook and implications  34

  Oil security assessment 35

    Supply-side security 36

    Demand-side readiness 37

    Exposure to economic and price risk 38

    Oil stockholding as a resilience tool 39

      Stockholding models 41

      Regional co-operation 44

      A path forward 46

  In-depth analysis: Indonesia 47

Natural gas and low-emissions gases security review 49

  Gas demand 49

  Gas supply 51

    Natural gas production 51

    Low-emissions gases 51

      Biomethane 51

      Low-emissions hydrogen 53

  Gas trade 54

  Five-year outlook 55

  Gas security assessment 57

  Supply-side security 57

    Domestic production base 57

    Import dependency 58

    Exposure to choke points 60

    Infrastructure adequacy 62

  Demand-side readiness 65

  Exposure to economic and price risk 67

  System resilience 67

    Strategic buffers and stocks 67

    Infrastructure resilience 68

    Climate and weather resilience 69

Coal and solid biofuels security review 71

  Coal demand 71

    Coal in metal production 72

  Coal supply 73

    Coal reserves 73

    Domestic production 74

      Import dependency and supply diversification 75

    Modern sustainable solid biofuels 77

  Five-year outlook 80

    Demand 80

    Supply 81

    Phase-out plans and transition pathways 81

  Coal security assessment 83

    Supply-side security 83

    Demand-side readiness 84

    Exposure to economic and price risk 86

Electricity and renewables security review 87

  Electricity demand 87

  Electricity supply 87

  Electricity markets 88

  Five-year outlook 90

    Demand 90

    Supply 90

  Electricity security assessment 91

    Supply-side security 92

      System adequacy 92

      System resilience 94

      Solar PV and wind supply chains 96

    Exposure to economic and price risk 98

    System flexibility 100

    Regional co-operation 102

      Priorities to support APG implementation 103

Energy efficiency and demand-side management 104

  Energy efficiency 106

  Policy landscape 107

    Buildings 107

    Appliances 109

    Transport 111

      Electrification 113

    Industry 114

  Demand-side flexibility 116

Critical minerals security review 119

  Critical minerals overview 119

  Critical minerals supply 121

  Five-year outlook 123

  Critical minerals security assessment 123

    Supply-side security 124

    Exposure to economic and price risk 125

    Regional co-operation 126

Annex 127

    Abbreviations and acronyms 127

    Units of measure 128