CONTENTS 3

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 5

LIST OF BOXES 10

LIST OF FIGURES 10

LIST OF TABLES 10

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12

INTRODUCTION 15

1. SKILLED LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: STRATEGIES TO

PROMOTE SKILLED EMPLOYMENT AND TERRITORIAL COHESION 16

           1.1. Labour shortages: a sectoral and occupational map 16

                     1.1.1. Scale and trajectory 16

                     1.1.2. Persistent shortages in strategic sectors 20

                     1.1.3. Occupational shortages and skill levels most affected 24

           1.2. Labour mobility: scale, flows, and occupational profile 26

                     1.2.1. The scale and forms of labour mobility 26

                     1.2.2. Main countries of origin and destination 30

                     1.2.3. Occupational and skill profiles of movers 34

           1.3. Investment in training: developing the skills Europe needs 36

                     1.3.1. Adult training: participation, unequal access and investment 36

                     1.3.2. Public investment in training and the EU policy response 38

                     1.3.3. What investment in training can achieve 42

           1.4. Regional talent pressures taxonomy (NUTS-3) 42

           1.5. Policies and Best Practices for Place-Based Talent Development 47

                     1.5.1. Attraction-oriented instruments 48

                     1.5.2. Retention-oriented instruments 50

                     1.5.3. Develop own talent 52

                     1.5.4. The transversal enabler: multi-level governance 53

2. POSTING OF THIRD-COUNTRY NATIONALS 56

           2.1. EU legal landscape and regulatory framework 57

                     2.1.1. Legislative mapping 58

                     2.1.2. CJEU case law 62

                     2.1.3. Identification and mapping of grey zones 64

           2.2. Sectoral and occupational mapping of TCN posting 67

                     2.2.1. Sectoral Concentration 68

                     2.2.2. Worker categories 69

                     2.2.3. Geographical patterns 71

                     2.2.4. Subcontracting chains and vulnerability 74

                     2.2.5. Data limitations and knowledge gaps 75

           2.3. Comparative national implementation and enforcement 75

                     2.3.1. How national authorities interpret “genuine posting” 75

                     2.3.2. A1 certificate contestability 76

                     2.3.3. Migration rules and host-state checks 77

                     2.3.4. Sanctions and enforcement mechanisms 77

           2.4. Best practice case studies 80

                     2.4.1. Worker protection and access to remedy 80

                     2.4.2. Data-driven transparency of posting 87

                     2.4.3. Cross-border administrative cooperation 90

3. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 97

           3.1. Conclusions 97

                     3.1.1. Skilled labour mobility, regional disparities and territorial cohesion 97

                     3.1.2. Posting of third-country nationals 99

                     3.1.3. What the two parts of the study have in common 102

           3.2. Policy recommendations 102

                     3.2.1. Skilled labour mobility, regional disparities and territorial cohesion 102

                     3.2.2. Posting of third-country nationals 104

                     3.2.3. The role of the European Parliament 106

REFERENCES 108