Title page

Contents

Executive summary 7

1. Introduction 12

2. Climate change is altering ocean dynamics 14

2.1. Ocean warming and thermal expansion 14

2.2. Ocean acidification 14

2.3. Ocean carbon storage 14

3. Climate change impact on jobs, growth and sustenance 15

4. Governance of the ocean 16

4.1. The regime complex in ocean governance 17

4.2. Institutional coherence in the ocean regime complex 24

5. Recommendations 25

6. Way forward 28

Annexure 1. Methodology: Comprehensive review of marine agreements, conventions, and institutions 29

Annexure 2. List of marine agreements and conventions at global and regional levels 30

Annexure 3. List of marine institutions analysed 33

References 35

Acronyms 42

Table 1. The UNEP RSP comprises three types of Regional Seas Convention and Action Plans across 18 regions 18

Table 2. A snapshot of decentralised, legally binding conventions (Helsinki, OSPAR and Nairobi) under the Regional Seas Programme 19

Table 3. Ocean-based action outcomes by G20 Presidencies 23

Figure 1. Global action to improve ocean-based action and commitments 16

Figure 2. Institutional arrangement in the ocean governance regime complex 24

Annexure Tables

Table A1. Global marine agreements and conventions 30

Table A2. Regional marine agreements and conventions 31

Table A3. Institutional arrangement in the ocean governance regime complex 33