Title page

Contents

Abstract/Résumé 4

1. Introduction and background 7

2. Family policies 14

2.1. Early childhood education and care 16

2.2. Parental leave 26

2.3. Financial transfers 31

3. Working conditions 33

3.1. Work hours and flexible working arrangements 34

3.2. Job stability, job quality and labour market dualism 37

4. Social norms 38

4.1. Changing norms towards marriage and having children 40

4.2. Norms towards women and men as caregivers and breadwinners 43

4.3. Can policies facilitate more fertility-friendly norms? 46

5. Conclusions 50

References 52

Table 1. Societal transitions: stylised features 39

Figure 1. Fertility has fallen over time across the OECD 7

Figure 2. Korea's population will fall dramatically with the current fertility rate 8

Figure 3. Korea's elderly dependency ratio will rise rapidly 8

Figure 4. Female employment has increased over time in most OECD countries 9

Figure 5. The gender employment gap opens up as Korean women enter their 30s 9

Figure 6. Korea's gender wage gap is the highest in the OECD 10

Figure 7. Fertility rates vary considerably across Korea 11

Figure 8. Total fertility rate and gender employment gap 12

Figure 9. Female employment rate of tertiary graduates is lower than the OECD average 13

Figure 10. Family spending varies in size and composition 15

Figure 11. Public early childhood education and care spending has increased significantly in Korea 17

Figure 12. Korea's enrolment rate in early childhood education and care services is high 18

Figure 13. Participation in out-of-school-hours services is high in Korea 19

Figure 14. Net childcare costs are relatively low in Korea 22

Figure 15. Net childcare costs for low-income families are higher than for average earners 22

Figure 16. Korea's child-to-staff ratio is higher than the OECD average 23

Figure 17. Enrolment in public childcare institutions is low in Korea 25

Figure 18. Paid leave entitlements differ across the OECD 27

Figure 19. Parents in Korea are less likely to use their parental leave than in most OECD countries 30

Figure 20. Public expenditure on child-related leaves in Korea is among the lowest in the OECD 31

Figure 21. Public expenditures for cash transfers and tax breaks for families are low in Korea 32

Figure 22. Long working hours are prevalent in Korea 34

Figure 23. Few workers utilise flexible working time arrangements in Korea 37

Figure 24. Norms tie childrearing and marriage closely together 40

Figure 25. Births outside marriage remain extremely uncommon in Korea 41

Figure 26. Marriage may imply giving up some freedoms 42

Figure 27. Exit from marriage may have a considerable social cost 42

Figure 28. Norms towards marriage and childbirth are changing in Korea 43

Figure 29. Korean norms are against working mothers 44

Figure 30. Norms towards working mothers are conservative also among the young 44

Figure 31. Korean men are seen as the main bread-winners 45

Figure 32. Gender gaps in time spent on paid and unpaid work are relatively large in Korea 45

Boxes

Box 1. Out-of-school-hours programmes in selected OECD countries 20

Box 2. OECD recommendations to maintain the quality of ECEC staff 24

Box 3. Estonia's comprehensive, universal and generous parental leave 28

Box 4. Types of family cash benefits 31

Box 5. Lump sum birth grants 33

Box 6. Female representation in the Norwegian parliament (Stortinget) 48

Box 7. Formal speech, Sweden's Du-reform and naming conventions in corporate Korea 49