Title page

Contents

Résumé 5

Acknowledgements 6

Executive summary 9

1. Challenges for the health workforce and use of Artificial Intelligence 11

1.1. Challenges facing the health workforce 11

1.2. Artificial Intelligence: A tool to help improve health outcomes 13

1.3. Artificial Intelligence and the health workforce 19

2. Design of this study on Artificial Intelligence and health workforce 21

3. Results of survey on Artificial Intelligence and health workforce 23

3.1. General perspectives on AI in healthcare 24

3.2. Anticipated trajectory of AI in healthcare 25

3.3. Perceived opportunities of implementing AI in healthcare 26

3.4. Perceived risks of implementing AI in healthcare 27

3.5. Overall trends in involvement of countries medical associations in health AI 29

3.6. Perceived national obstacles to AI implementation in healthcare 30

4. Charting a path forward for AI in health 31

4.1. Positive perceptions of AI in healthcare outweigh the risks 31

4.2. AI will change healthcare and the physician's role will stay central 32

4.3. Data accessibility and managing AI applications perceived as significant barriers 33

4.4. Low levels of health and digital literacy as barriers to responsible AI innovation and adoption in healthcare 34

4.5. Ethical and liability concerns regarding AI in healthcare 35

4.6. Limitations of the study 38

5. Future directions for Artificial Intelligence and health workforce 39

Glossary 40

References 41

Annex A. Artificial Intelligence and the health workforce survey structure 48

Annex B. Level of involvement in adoption of AI in health by countries medical associations 54

Table 2.1. Structure of the final questionnaire sent to countries' medical associations 21

Table 2.2. Summary of the 5-point Likert Scale used in the AI and the Health workforce Survey 22

Table 3.1. Respondents to the AI in Health workforce Survey 23

Figure 1.1. AI-Supported clinical decision-making support system 14

Figure 2.1. AI in healthcare questionnaire research model 22

Figure 3.1. General perspectives of country medical associations on AI in healthcare 24

Figure 3.2. Countries medical associations anticipated trajectory of AI in healthcare 25

Figure 3.3. Medical associations perceived opportunities of Implementing AI in healthcare sector 26

Figure 3.4. Medical association perceived risks that prevent the adoption of AI in health 28

Figure 3.5. Medical association self-reported involvement in AI projects 29

Figure 3.6. Medical associations perceived barriers of implementing AI in healthcare sectors 30

Boxes

Box 1.1. Case analysis - Implementing AI in a pathology laboratory of Maccabi Healthcare Services 15

Box 1.2. Case analysis - AI-powered clinical note taking in healthcare 18

Box 1.3. Case analysis - Navigating AI adoption and governance in healthcare - The AMA's approach 20

Annex Tables

Table A B.1. Level of involvement in adoption of AI in health by countries medical associations 54