Title page 1

Contents 4

FOREWORD 7

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 9

List of Contributors 9

CHAPTER 1. Trends in Labor Migration in Asia 10

1.1. Introduction 10

1.2. Changing Trends: The Post-COVID-19 Rebound Appears to Have Ended 10

1.3. Labor Migration to OECD and non-OECD Asian Economies 15

1.4. Labor Migration to non-Asian OECD Countries 23

1.5. International Student Mobility to and from Asia 29

1.6. Gender Composition of Deployment of Workers from Asian Countries 31

1.7. Skill Levels of Migrants Deployed in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries and Asian Economies 32

Reference 34

CHAPTER 2. Fair Recruitment in Asia: Issues, Challenges, and Progress Achieved 35

2.1. Introduction 35

2.2. Definition of Fair Recruitment and Modalities of Recruitment in Asia 35

2.2.1. Definition of Fair Recruitment 35

2.2.2. Recruitment Modalities-Evidence from Countries in Asia 36

2.3. Worker Paid Recruitment Fees, Costs, and Wages: Summary Information from SDG Target 10.7.1 Surveys for the Asia and Pacific 38

2.3.1. Definition of the Recruitment Cost Indicator 38

2.3.2. Recruitment Cost Indicator for Selected Countries 39

2.3.3. Recruitment Cost Indicator by Skill Level 41

2.3.4. Recruitment Cost Indicator by Migratory Status 41

2.4. Why Ensuring Fair Recruitment is an Uphill Battle 42

2.4.1. Normative and Legal Frameworks 45

2.4.2. Bilateral Labor Migration Instruments9 and their Reference to Fair Recruitment 48

2.4.3. Emerging Good Provisions and Practices 51

2.4.4. ILO's Fair Recruitment Initiative and Progress Toward Fair Recruitment for Migrant Workers in the Region 54

2.5. Conclusions and the Way Forward 56

2.5.1. Conclusions 56

2.5.2. The Way Forward 57

References 61

CHAPTER 3. Training In-country Programming for Would-be Migrants in Asia and the Pacific 65

3.1. Introduction 65

3.2. Who Trains Labor Migrants? 66

3.2.1. Country of Origin Support for Training for Labor Migration 66

3.2.2. Training with Support from Development Agencies 67

3.2.3. Private Sector Training 70

3.2.4. Public-Private Partnerships: Training in Origin Countries for Japan's Specified Skilled Worker System 71

3.3. Sectors for Training in Country of Origin 72

3.3.1. Firm-driven Training in Country of Origin for the Maritime Sector 73

3.3.2. Expansion of Maritime Sector Training in Pacific Island Countries 73

3.3.3. Training for Work in Domestic Services 76

3.4. Conclusions 77

References 79

CHAPTER 4. Outward Migration, Remittances, and Socioeconomic Development: The Cases of Nepal and the Philippines 82

4.1. Overview 82

4.1.1. Remittances as a Source of External Finance 83

4.1.2. Brain Drain and Social Harmony 84

4.1.3. Migration, Social Harmony, and Cultural Identity 85

4.2. Nepal 85

4.2.1. Brief History and Prospects of Outward Migration in Nepal 86

4.2.2. Impacts of Outward Migration and Remittances on Socioeconomic Development in Nepal 88

4.2.3. Remittances and Institutional Quality in Nepal 89

4.2.4. Stable Consumption, Savings, and Macroeconomic Stability 90

4.2.5. Migration, Poverty, and Inequality 92

4.2.6. Remittances and Domestic Financial Sector Development 93

4.2.7. Migration, Health, Education, and Human Capital 94

4.2.8. Industrial Structure, Migration, and Boom of the Service Sector 95

4.2.9. Outward Migration-Remittances-Imports-Trade Deficit Nexus 96

4.2.10. Migration, Size of Government, and Government Revenue 97

4.2.11. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations 99

4.3. The Philippines 100

4.3.1. Remittance-receiving Households in the Philippines 100

4.3.2. Impact of Remittances: Micro and Macro Views 101

4.3.3. Integrating Micro-level Insights into Macro-level Analytical Framework: The Case for the Philippines 102

4.3.4. Heterogeneity in Spending Patterns: Nonrecipient versus Remittance Recipient Households 102

4.3.5. Harnessing Remittances Toward Social Mobility and Development 104

References 105

ANNEX 1. ECONOMY-SPECIFIC NOTES 110

ANNEX 2. COMPARATIVE TABLES 136

Tables 5

Table 1.1. Outflows of Workers from Selected Asian Countries, 2012-2024 12

Table 1.2. Flows of Workers to Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, Main Sending Countries, 2024 and % change 2023-2024 12

Table 1.3. Flows of Workers to ASEAN Countries, by Origin and Destination, 2024 13

Table 1.4. Singapore, Foreign Workforce Numbers, 2019-2024 21

Table 1.5. Foreign workers in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Viet Nam, 2012-2024 22

Table 2.1a. Recruitment Methods for Migrant Workers in Countries of Destination, Percent of Total, Selected Countries 37

Table 2.1b. Recruitment Methods for Migrant Workers in Country of Origin, Percent of Total, Selected Countries 37

Table 2.2a. Migratory Status of Workers, Philippines 2019 38

Table 2.2b. Migrant Workers: Modes of Entry into Thailand, 2019 38

Table 2.3. Recruitment Cost Indicators 10.7.1, Selected Countries 39

Table 2.4. Maldives: Recruitment Process and Recruitment Cost Indicator, 2019 40

Table 2.5. Viet Nam: Recruitment Cost Indicator by Method of Job Acquisition Abroad, 2021 41

Table 2.6. Recruitment Cost Indicator by Worker Skills 41

Table 2.7. Recruitment Cost Indicator by Legal Migration Status, Philippines 2019 42

Table 2.8. Ratification of Recruitment-related Conventions and Protocols 48

Table 4.1. Natural Resources of High-Remittance Receiving Economies 89

Figures 5

Figure 1.1. Total Outflows of Workers from Selected Asian Countries, 2012-2024 11

Figure 1.2. Japan, Stock of Foreigners Employed, 2015-2024 16

Figure 1.3. Japan, Stock of Foreigners with Work or Study Related Residence Status, 2015-2024 17

Figure 1.4. Republic of Korea, Stock of Foreigners Employed, 2015-2024 18

Figure 1.5. Taipei,China, Stock of Foreign Workforce by Sector, 2015-2024 19

Figure 1.6. Hong Kong, China, Selected Employment Visas/Entry Permits, 2015-2024 20

Figure 1.7. Top 10 non-Asian OECD Destinations for Migration from Asia, 2019-2022 23

Figure 1.8. Labor Migration from Asia to the United Kingdom, 2015-2024 24

Figure 1.9. Health and Care Worker Visas issued 2020-2024, by Origin and Category 25

Figure 1.10. Labor Migration from Asia to Canada, 2015-2024 26

Figure 1.11. Temporary Foreign Worker Admissions in Canada by Nationality, 2016-2024 26

Figure 1.12. Temporary Skilled Labor Migration from Asia to Australia, 2015-2024 27

Figure 1.13. H-1B Visa Issuances by the United States, by Country of Nationality of Recipient, 2019-2024 28

Figure 1.14. European Union Blue Card (Highly-qualified Workers) Issuances by Origin, 2020-2023 28

Figure 1.15. Top Five Asian Nationalities of International Tertiary-level Students Enrolled in OECD Countries, 2014 and 2022 29

Figure 1.16. Student Visas Issued by Citizenship, United Kingdom, 2019-2024 30

Figure 1.17. Share of Women Among Labor Migrants by Selected Origin Countries, 2016-2024 31

Figure 1.18. Workers by Skill Category, Selected Origin Countries, 2015-2024 33

Figure 4.1. Emerging Trends of External Sources of Finance 84

Figure 4.2. High-Remittance Receiving Economies and Population 87

Figure 4.3. Remittances and Institutional Quality Index, Nepal 90

Figure 4.4. Uses of Remittances, Nepal 91

Figure 4.5. Remittance Inflows, Gross National Expenditure, and Gross Savings, Nepal 92

Figure 4.6. Remittance Inflows and Financial Development, Nepal 94

Figure 4.7. Remittance Inflows and Economic Structure, Nepal 95

Figure 4.8. Remittance Inflows and Trade Deficit, Nepal 96

Figure 4.9. Remittances and Tax Revenue, Nepal 97

Figure 4.10. Total Fertility Rates, Nepal, 1980-2015 98

Figure 4.11. Distribution of Filipino Households Receiving International Remittances, by Income Quintile, 2018 101

Figure 4.12. Share of Broad Expenditure Items to Total Expenditure, Philippines, 2018 103

Figure 4.13. Sectoral Distribution of Remittances Contribution, Philippines, 2018 104

Boxes 6

Box 1.1. Developments in Labor Migration from Myanmar 15

Box 1.2. Foreign Workers in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Viet Nam 22

Box 1.3. The United Kingdom Health and Care Worker Visa and its Uptake by Asian Workers and Dependents 25

Box 1.4. The Rise and Fall in Asian Student Migration to the United Kingdom, 2021-2024 30

Box 2.1. Recruitment of Bangladeshi Workers in Malaysia 45

Box 2.2. Promising Practices for Fair Recruitment 56

Box 3.1. International Branch Campuses and Their Link to Labor Migration 67

Annex Tables 137

Table A2.1. Inflows from Asia to the OECD by Economy of Origin 137

Table A2.2. Outflows of Workers from Asian Economies, by Destination 138

Table A2.3. Migrant Remittance Inflows in Asian Economies, 2000-2022 149

Table A2.4. Net Migration Rate 150

Table A2.5. International Students in OECD Countries by Economy of Origin 152