Title page 1

Contents 1

Abstract 2

1. Introduction 4

2. Data 7

2.1. Micro-level Data on Employment and Wages 7

2.2. Regional Data on Internet Infrastructure Investment 8

3. Empirical Strategy 10

4. Results 14

4.1. Aggregate Labor Market Impacts 15

4.2. Heterogeneity by Occupation 16

4.3. Heterogeneity by Gender 17

4.3.1. Robustness Checks 20

4.3.2. Role of Skills 24

4.3.3. Transmission Mechanism 26

4.4. Is Investment in Digital Infrastructure Different? Comparisons with Physical Infrastructure Investments 28

5. Conclusion 31

References 34

Appendix 37

A. Additional Tables and Figures 37

B. Road Infrastructure and Female Employment 45

Tables 16

Table 1. Labor Market Outcomes and High-Speed Internet 16

Table 2. Female labor Market Outcomes and High-Speed Internet 18

Table 3. Gender Differences in Employment, Wages, and WFH Intensity 19

Table 4. Female employment shares in selected teleworkable occupations 24

Table 5. Female labor Market Outcomes and High-Speed Internet: Results by skill groups 25

Table 6. Worker Movements within Provinces 27

Table 7. Female Labor Market Effects of Internet and Road Infrastructure Investments 30

Figures 9

Figure 1. Fiber Internet roll-out 9

Figure 2. Change in Optical fiber Length 10

Figure 3. BOTAS Oil and Gas Pipeline Network 14

Figure 4. First-stage estimates 14

Appendix Tables 41

Table A1. Labor Market Outcomes and High-Speed Internet: Role of Teleworkability 41

Table A2. Female Employment and High-Speed Internet 42

Table A3. Female labor Market Outcomes and High-Speed Internet: Robustness checks 43

Table A4. Work-from-Home and High-Speed Internet: Effect on women 44

Table A5. Share of Female Employment and Improvements in Market Access 47

Appendix Figures 37

Figure A1. Correlation of Fiber Intensity with Upload and Download Speeds 37

Figure A2. Distance to BOTAS pipelines and Initial Province Characteristics 38

Figure A3. WFH Intensity by Industry and Sex 39

Figure A4. WFH Intensity by Occupation and Sex 40