Introduction 1

A Note on U.S. Code Citations 1

Relevance for Congress 2

Highlights of VRA Provisions 3

Historical Factors That Influenced the VRA 3

Reconstruction and Continuing Barriers to Voting Despite Post-Civil War

Enfranchisement Efforts 5

Reconstruction 6

Political Parties and Continuing Disenfranchisement 7

Congressional Momentum Toward the VRA 8

Development of the 1965 VRA 10

Preclearance Requirements Affecting Some Jurisdictions 13

Participation After the 1965 VRA 15

Development of Major VRA Amendments 17

1970 Amendments: Extending Expiring Provisions 19

1975 Amendments: Extending Expiring Provisions and Adding Language

Minority Provisions 19

1982 Amendments: Extending Expiring Provisions and Clarifying Congressional

Intent Regarding Section 2 21

2006 Amendments: Extending Preclearance, and Final Major Amendments Pre

Shelby County 22

Recent Legislative Developments and Concluding Comments 24