Title page 1

Contents 11

Preface 4

Foreword 6

Acknowledgements 9

Reader's Guide 17

Executive Summary 26

What is PISA? 47

OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 47

What is unique about PISA? 47

Which countries and economies participate in PISA? 47

Key features of PISA 2025 48

References 51

Notes 51

1. Multidimensional student learning in PISA 2025 52

The multidimensional framework for competent learners 53

Competent learners 55

Safe and fair learning environments 63

Supportive families and schools 63

Student engagement in environmental challenges 64

References 67

Notes 67

2. Student performance in PISA 2025 69

Performance in science, reading, mathematics and computational problem solving 71

Changes in performance across cycles 90

Equity in education in PISA 2025 109

References 145

Notes 148

3. Student attitudes towards learning 151

Curiosity and perseverance 156

Growth mindset, beliefs about the nature of science and cognitive adaptability 163

Student agency: Self-regulated help seeking and goal setting 179

Sense of belonging and the value of school for students 190

Student engagement with learning and performance in science 206

References 213

Notes 216

4. Student school life and beyond 218

Introduction 221

School resources 222

Relationships with teachers and families 251

School climate 260

References 274

Notes 276

5. Students and the environment 281

Introduction 283

Student proficiency in environmental science in PISA 2025z 284

Environmental attitudes as reported in PISA 2025 288

Environmental commitment 294

Environmental proficiency, attitudes and commitment 300

School opportunities for environmental learning and action 303

References 307

Notes 308

Annex A1. Trends in reading scores over three PISA cycles (2018-2025) 309

Annex A2. The PISA target population and the PISA samples 322

Annex A3. Technical notes on analyses in this volume 327

Annex B1. Results for countries and economies 333

Annex B2. Results for regions within countries 345

Annex C. Released items from the PISA 2025 Science and Learning in the Digital World (LDW) assessments 347

Annex D. Overview of performance trends 360

Annex E. The development and implementation of PISA: A collaborative effort 361

Table I.1. Snapshot of performance in science, reading, mathematics and computational problem-solving 29

Table I.2. Snapshot of socio-economic disparities and immigrant background in science performance 31

Table I.3. Snapshot of gender gaps in performance 33

Table I.4. Snapshot of perceived engagement with learning and response behaviour 35

Table I.5. Snapshot of safe and fair learning environment 37

Table I.6. Snapshot of digitalisation and Artificial Intelligence (AI) 39

Table I.7. Snapshot of supportive families and schools 41

Table I.8. Snapshot of students and the environment 43

Table 1. PISA 2025 participating countries and economies 48

Table I.1.1. PISA 2025 figures in Chapter 1 66

Table I.2.1. Comparing countries' and economies' performance in science 72

Table I.2.2. Description of the aggregated levels of science proficiency in PISA 2025 78

Table I.2.3. Comparing countries and economies on the science competency subscales 82

Table I.2.4. Comparing countries' and economies' performance in computational problem solving 85

Table I.2.5. Within-country correlation across domains in PISA 2025 87

Table I.2.6. Change between 2022 and 2025 in mean performance in science, reading and mathematics 90

Table I.2.7. Yearly learning gain in PISA scores in ten countries and economies 92

Table I.2.8. Change between 2022 and 2025 in low- and top performers in science 95

Table I.2.9. Trends in mean performance in science, reading and mathematics since 2015 102

Table I.2.10. Change between 2022 and 2025 in the socio-economic gap in science performance 121

Table I.2.11. Change between 2022 and 2025 in low and top performers in science, by national quarter of socio-economic status 128

Table I.2.12. Change between 2022 and 2025 in mean performance in science, by gender 132

Table I.2.13. Change between 2022 and 2025 in low- and top performers in science, by gender 138

Table I.2.14. PISA 2025 figures and tables in Chapter 2 144

Table I.3.1. Summary of relationships across the student attitudes measured in PISA 2025 153

Table I.3.2. Description of the scientific profiles 174

Table I.3.3. Change in student attitudes, over one year of schooling and age, in eight countries and economies 201

Table I.3.4. Summary of findings across the dimensions of student engagement 210

Table I.3.5. PISA 2025 figures and tables in Chapter 3 212

Table I.4.1. School resources, relationships with teachers and families, school climate, students' science performance and attitudes... 222

Table I.4.2. Shortage of digital devices and student science performance 225

Table I.4.3. School policies on the use of digital devices and student science performance 237

Table I.4.4. PISA 2025 figures and tables in Chapter 4 273

Table I.5.1. Students' environmental awareness, by topic 289

Table I.5.2. Belief in collective environmental efficacy, by topic 291

Table I.5.3. PISA 2025 figures and tables in Chapter 5 307

Figure I.1.1. PISA 2025's multidimensional framework for competent learners 53

Figure I.1.2. Multiple dimensions of student learning 54

Figure I.1.3. Science performance and spending on education 56

Figure I.1.4. The global pool of future science innovators across 91 countries and economies 57

Figure I.1.5. Trends in performance over time in science, reading and mathematics 58

Figure I.1.6. Trends in low- and high-achievers over time in science, reading and mathematics 58

Figure I.1.7. Trends in student perceived engagement over time 59

Figure I.1.8. Competent, proficient and engaged learners 60

Figure I.1.9. Engaged learners and proficient learners 61

Figure I.1.10. Trends in engagement and trends in performance 62

Figure I.1.11. Multiple dimensions of student engagement in environmental challenges 64

Figure I.1.12. Social mobility, growth mindset and academic resilience 66

Figure I.2.1. Distribution of science performance 75

Figure I.2.2. Variation in science performance between and within schools 76

Figure I.2.3. Students' proficiency in science 80

Figure I.2.4. Relative performance in computational problem solving 89

Figure I.2.5. Average change in science scores for low- and high-achieving students (2022-2025) 93

Figure I.2.6. Trends in performance over time in science, reading and mathematics 96

Figure I.2.7. Average decennial trend in science for low- and high-achieving students (2015-2025) 103

Figure I.2.8. Linear trend in the minimum score attained by at least 25% of 15-year-olds since 2015 106

Figure I.2.9. Performance change in literacy from age 15 to young adulthood 108

Figure I.2.10. Strength of the socio-economic gradient and share of 15-year-olds at or above proficiency Level 2 in science 111

Figure I.2.11. Overlap of low performers in science, reading and mathematics among all 15-year-olds 114

Figure I.2.12. Performance in science, by national quarters of socio-economic status 117

Figure I.2.13. Performance in science, by international quarters of socio-economic status 118

Figure I.2.14. Change between 2022 and 2025 in science performance, by quarter of socio-economic status 120

Figure I.2.15. Low performers in science, by socio-economic status 123

Figure I.2.16. Academically resilient students in science 124

Figure I.2.17. Students' deprivation 126

Figure I.2.18. Gender gap in science performance 131

Figure I.2.19. Low performers in science, by gender 135

Figure I.2.20. Top performers in science, by gender 136

Figure I.2.21. Disadvantaged students, by immigrant background 141

Figure I.2.22. Immigrant students who do not speak the language of assessment at home 142

Figure I.2.23. Differences in science performance, by immigrant background 143

Figure I.3.1. Mean country-level results for selected dimensions 154

Figure I.3.2. Change in students who disagree that learning new things is boring between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 157

Figure I.3.3. Change in students who feel more curious than most people they know between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 158

Figure I.3.4. Change in students who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 160

Figure I.3.5. Change in giving up easily and change in finding learning new things boring between 2022 and 2025 161

Figure I.3.6. Students who like learning new things, by level of students' perseverance 162

Figure I.3.7. Students with a growth mindset, by gender 164

Figure I.3.8. Students with a growth mindset and who like learning new things 165

Figure I.3.9. Students with a growth mindset and who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging 167

Figure I.3.10. Teachers' and students' growth mindset 168

Figure I.3.11. Growth mindset and encouragement for students to persevere 169

Figure I.3.12. Students checking reliability of sources 171

Figure I.3.13. Students' curiosity and beliefs about the nature of science 172

Figure I.3.14. Percentage of students with strong scientific and non-restrictive profiles, and average science performance 175

Figure I.3.15. Students' cognitive adaptability, by gender 177

Figure I.3.16. Students' perseverance and cognitive adaptability 178

Figure I.3.17. Students' help seeking, by gender 180

Figure I.3.18. Students who like learning new things, by level of students' self-regulated help seeking 181

Figure I.3.19. Students who only ask for help after trying hard to find the solution on their own, by fixed and growth mindset 183

Figure I.3.20. Students' goal setting, by gender 185

Figure I.3.21. Students who like to learn new things, by self-regulated goal setting 186

Figure I.3.22. Relationship between students' curiosity and goal setting, by teacher support 187

Figure I.3.23. Cognitive activation in science classes and students' attitudes toward learning and science 189

Figure I.3.24. Sense of belonging at school, by gender 191

Figure I.3.25. Students who believe school has taught them things useful in a job, by level of students' sense of belonging 193

Figure I.3.26. Students who apply additional effort when work becomes challenging, by level of students' sense of belonging 194

Figure I.3.27. Relationship between students' curiosity and sense of belonging, by level of teacher support 195

Figure I.3.28. Change in students who disagree that school has done little to prepare them for adult life between PISA 2022 and PISA 2025 198

Figure I.3.29. Students with a growth mindset and who believe that school prepares them for adult life 199

Figure I.3.30. Percentage of students who believe that school prepares them for adult life, by proficiency level in science 203

Figure I.3.31. Students who believe that school prepares them for adult life, by level of students' curiosity 204

Figure I.3.32. Dimensions of engagement, by proficiency level in science 205

Figure I.3.33. Relationship between curiosity and science performance 207

Figure I.3.34. Relationship between perseverance and science performance 208

Figure I.4.1. Shortage of digital devices 224

Figure I.4.2. School capacity to enhance teaching and learning using digital devices: 2018 through 2025 226

Figure I.4.3. Change between 2022 and 2025 in time spent per day using digital devices at school 228

Figure I.4.4. Change between 2022 and 2025 in time spent on leisure activities 229

Figure I.4.5. Time spent on digital devices for learning at school per day and science performance 230

Figure I.4.6. Time spent on digital devices for leisure at school per day and science performance 231

Figure I.4.7. Distraction from digital devices in science lessons 232

Figure I.4.8. Distraction from digital devices and science performance 233

Figure I.4.9. Digital distraction and frequency of use of digital devices in science lessons 234

Figure I.4.10. Digital distraction and school policies on the use of digital devices 236

Figure I.4.11. Students' use of artificial intelligence chatbots for schoolwork 238

Figure I.4.12. Students' non-use of artificial intelligence for schoolwork 239

Figure I.4.13. Mean score in science, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 240

Figure I.4.14. Mean score in science, by frequency of AI use "to help me learn" and frequency of assessing AI-generated information... 241

Figure I.4.15. Help seeking, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 242

Figure I.4.16. Curiosity, by frequency of AI use for schoolwork 243

Figure I.4.17. Overall level of use of artificial intelligence for schoolwork and mean performance in science 244

Figure I.4.18. Changes between 2022 and 2025 in shortages of teaching staff 246

Figure I.4.19. Shortage of education staff and material resources, and science performance 247

Figure I.4.20. Total time spent on homework (all subjects) and science performance 249

Figure I.4.21. Study help provision in schools 250

Figure I.4.22. Change between 2015 and 2025 in reported teacher support in science 252

Figure I.4.23. Teacher support in science and science performance 253

Figure I.4.24. Socio-economic gap in higher education aspirations and parental and peer aspirations 255

Figure I.4.25. Family support and science performance 256

Figure I.4.26. Change between 2022 and 2025 in family support 257

Figure I.4.27. Students' educational and occupational expectations 259

Figure I.4.28. Change between 2015 and 2025 in disciplinary climate and in science performance 261

Figure I.4.29. Students' exposure to bullying 262

Figure I.4.30. Students' exposure to cyberbullying, by student and school characteristics 265

Figure I.4.31. Students' exposure to bullying and science performance 267

Figure I.4.32. Cyberbullying and time spent using digital devices 268

Figure I.4.33. Exposure to bullying and the school learning environment, at the school level 269

Figure I.4.34. Change between 2018 and 2025 in truancy and lateness 270

Figure I.4.35. Truancy and science performance 272

Figure I.5.1. Student environmental agency, as examined in PISA 2025 284

Figure I.5.2. Mean score in student performance on environmental science (science subscale) 285

Figure I.5.3. Disparities in environmental science (science subscale), by student and school characteristics 286

Figure I.5.4. Student proficiency in environmental science (science subscale) 287

Figure I.5.5. Students' beliefs in their capacity to generate environmental change, by topic 290

Figure I.5.6. Pro-environmental attitudes and student performance in environmental science 292

Figure I.5.7. Mismatch between proficiency in environmental science and caring for the environment 293

Figure I.5.8. Students' participation in environment-related activities, by student and school characteristics 295

Figure I.5.9. Reasons for never participating in environmental activities 297

Figure I.5.10. Environment-related career expectations, by student characteristics 299

Figure I.5.11. Environmental proficiency, attitudes and long-term commitment, by short-term commitment 301

Figure I.5.12. Mismatch between care for the environment and environmental commitment 302

Figure I.5.13. Opportunities for environmental learning in class, by type 304

Figure I.5.14. Opportunities for environmental learning in class, by country/economy 305

Figure I.5.15. Environmental learning opportunities and three dimensions of environmental agency 306

Boxes 16

Box 1. Interpreting differences in PISA scores 24

Box I.1.1. Students' perceptions of social mobility 65

Box I.2.1. Comparing countries and economies on the three science competency subscales 81

Box I.2.2. How much do 15-year-olds learn over one year of schooling? 91

Box I.2.3. Why has reading performance declined over time? Four underlying forces 96

Box I.2.4. Do literacy skills continue to develop after age 15? Evidence from PISA and PIAAC 107

Box I.2.5. Multidimensional deprivation among students participating in PISA 125

Box I.3.1. Growth mindset and teacher and family support 168

Box I.3.2. Views on fact-checking information versus relying on common sense 173

Box I.3.3. Students' enjoyment of science and cognitive activation in science classes 189

Box I.3.4. How do student attitudes towards schooling and learning change during adolescence? 200

Box I.4.1. Leisure time on digital devices has declined outside of school 228

Box I.4.2. Assessing AI-generated information as a learning opportunity 241

Box I.4.3. How do parental and peer expectations shape higher education aspirations? 254

Box I.4.4. Inter-generational transmission of occupation and education 258

Box I.5.1. Environmental literacy in PISA: Key concepts and measures 284

Box I.5.2. Caring without proficiency or proficiency without caring 292

Infographics 14

Infographic 1. PISA 2025 key results 45

Table I.A1.1. Trends in reading scores over three PISA cycles (2018-2025) - Tables for Annex A1 319

Table I.A2.1. The PISA target population and the PISA samples - Tables for Annex A2 324

Table I.A3.1. Link errors for the linear trend between previous assessments and PISA 2025 332

Table I.B1.1. How did countries perform in PISA 2025? Chapter 1 tables 333

Table I.B1.2. Student performance in PISA 2025. Chapter 2 tables - Performance and proficiency 333

Table I.B1.3. Student performance in PISA 2025. Chapter 2 tables - Socio-economic differences 334

Table I.B1.4. Student performance in PISA 2025. Chapter 2 tables - Gender differences 335

Table I.B1.5. Student performance in PISA 2025. Chapter 2 tables - Immigrant background 336

Table I.B1.6. Student attitudes towards learning. Chapter 3 tables 336

Table I.B1.7. Student school life and beyond. Chapter 4 tables 338

Table I.B1.8. Students and the environment. Chapter 5 tables 343

Table I.B2.1. Results for regions within countries - Annex B2 tables 345

Table I.D.1. Overviews of performance trends by country and economy 360