About this report 7

Reading guide 8

Methodology 12

Executive Summary 14

Conclusions and recommendations to improve EO exploitation for crime-fighting applications 25

GENERAL ANALYSIS

1 Fundamentals of satellite EO use against environmental crimes 30

 1.1 Introduction to environmental crimes 31

 1.1 A definition of environmental crime 31

  1.1.2 Main trends in environmental crimes 32

 1.2 Introduction to satellite Earth Observation 33

  1.2.1 Different types of satellites and data 33

 1.3 Introduction to the use of satellite EO against environmental crimes 36

  1.3.1 A brief history of the use of satellite EO against environmental crimes 37

  1.3.2 The current landscape: More and better data 40

2 EO and environmental crime legislation 50

 2.1 Introduction 51

  2.1.1 National institutional frameworks: Law enforcement authorities 52

 2.2 Legal systems 53

 2.3 Focus on judges and prosecutors 54

 2.4 International treaties 55

  2.4.1 International treaties expressly mentioning satellites 56

 2.5 EU legislation 57

  2.5.1 International treaties expressly mentioning satellites 57

  2.5.2 Satellites in the recent work of EU institutions on environmental crimes 57

  2.5.3 Satellites in the Union’s recent legislation on environmental crimes 59

  2.5.4 The EU’s increasing financial investments in satellites over time 60

 2.6 Domestic frameworks 60

  2.6.1 Domestic law on environmental crimes with direct reference to satellites 61

  2.6.2 Domestic law on environmental crimes with no direct reference to satellites 61

  2.6.2 Challenged application of satellites 61

  2.6.3 Challenged application of satellites 61

 2.7 Certification of satellite data 62

  2.7.1 Role of certification 62

  2.7.2 Traceability of the EO supply chain 63

  2.7.3 Examples of malicious manipulation 63

  2.7.4 Certification in focus: The case of the US 64

3 Landscaping the use of EO against environmental crimes 66

 3.1 Introduction 67

 3.2 Main actors 68

  3.2.1 Law enforcement agencies (LEAs) 69

  3.2.2 Prosecutors 69

  3.2.3 Judges 70

  3.2.4 Civil society 70

  3.2.5 International organisations 71

  3.2.6 Private companies 72

  3.2.7 Main factors influencing applications 72

  3.2.8 Geography 72

  3.2.9 Sector 73

  3.2.10 Technical capacity 73

  3.2.11 Legislative frameworks 74

 3.3 Main sectors of application 75

 3.4 Main benefits 76

 3.5 Main benefits: tasks that are otherwise impossible 77

 3.6 Detailing advantages in using EO 77

  3.6.1 Possibility to perform inspections on a distance 77

  3.6.2 Saving resources 78

  3.6.3 Automation 78

  3.6.4 Prevention and deterrence effect 79

  3.6.5 Completeness of information: Time and geographical coverage 79

  3.6.6 Objectivity 80

  3.6.7 Support to damage estimation and to restoration activities 80

  3.6.8 Cross-border investigations 81

 3.7 Main obstacles 81

  3.7.1 Technical obstacles 82

  3.7.2 Operative obstacles 83

  3.7.3 Judicial obstacles 84

  3.7.4 Legislative obstacles 85

  3.7.5 Political obstacles 85

  3.7.6 Socio-economic obstacles 87

SECTORAL ANALYSIS

1 FORESTRY CRIME 88

 1.1 Overview of applications in the sector and recent evolution 90

 1.2 Main players involved 92

 1.3 Main advantages in using satellite in the sector 95

 1.4 Main obstacles 97

2 ILLEGAL POLLUTION 102

 2.1 Overview of applications in the sector and recent evolution 104

 2.2 Main players involved 105

 2.3 Main advantages in using satellite in the sector 109

 2.4 Main obstacles 110

3 FISHERY CRIME 114

 3.1 Overview of applications in the sector and recent evolution 116

 3.2 Main players involved 116

 3.3 Main advantages in using satellite in the sector 119

 3.4 Main obstacles 120

4 ILLEGAL MINING 124

 4.1 Overview of applications in the sector and recent evolution 126

 4.2 Main players involved 127

 4.3 Main advantages in using satellite in the sector 128

 4.4 Main obstacles 130

OTHER SECTORS

1 Sand mining 137

 1.1 Overview of applications 137

 1.2 Main users 137

 1.3 Advantages 139

 1.4 Obstacles 139

2 Waste trafficking 141

 2.1 Overview of applications 141

 2.2 Main users 142

 2.3 Advantages 143

 2.4 Obstacles 143

3 Illegal construction 144

 3.1 Overview of applications 144

 3.2 Main users 144

 3.3 Advantages 145

 3.4 Obstacles 146

4 Wildlife crime 147

 4.1 Overview of applications 147

 4.2 Main users 148

 4.3 Advantages 148

 4.4 Obstacles 148

CASE STUDIES

1 Satellite detection of illegal deforestation and water theft in Western Mexico 152

 1.1 Overview 153

 1.2 Benefits 155

 1.3 Obstacles and limitations 156

 1.4 Replicability 157

2 Remote monitoring of rare earth mining expansion in northern Myanmar 158

 2.1 Overview 158

 2.2 Benefits 160

 2.3 Obstacles and limitations 161

 2.4 Replicability 161

3 Investigations on palm-oil-driven wildfires in Indonesia 163

 3.1 Overview 163

 3.2 Benefits 165

 3.3 Obstacles 166

 3.4 Replicability 166

4 Remote sensing-based enforcement of environmental policies in Flanders 168

 4.1 Overview 168

 4.2 Benefits 169

 4.3 Obstacles and limitations 170

 4.4 Replicability 171

5 Illegal mining investigation in Bangka Belitung 172

 5.1 Overview 172

 5.2 Benefits 174

 5.3 Obstacles and limitations 175

 5.4 Replicability 176

6 EO to detect and intercept fishery crime by the European Fisheries Control Agency 177

 6.1 Overview 177

 6.2 Benefits 179

 6.3 Obstacles and limitations 180

 6.4 Replicability 181

7 Detection of illegal mining in India: Mining Surveillance System (MSS) 182

 7.1 Overview 182

 7.2 Benefits 182

 7.3 Obstacles and limitations 183

 7.4 Replicability 184

8 Reducing human-wildlife conflict and poaching in Sub-Saharan Africa 186

 8.1 Overview 186

 8.2 Benefits 187

 8.3 Obstacles and limitations 188

 8.4 Replicability 188

9 AI detection of illegal landfills and solid waste in Northern Italy 190

 9.1 Overview 190

 9.2 Benefits 190

 9.3 Obstacles and limitations 192

 9.4 Replicability 192

10 Using OSINT and EO to identify recent Illegal activities in northern Peru 194

 10.1 Overview 194

 10.2 Benefits 195

 10.3 Obstacles and limitations 196

 10.4 Replicability 197

Glossary 198

Acronyms and abbreviations 202

Bibliography 204

Interviews 213