Scope of the report 4

Key messages 5

Global climate context 6

Regional climate 8

Temperature 8 

Precipitation 9 

Cryosphere 10

 Snow cover 10

 Glaciers 11

Oceans 12

 Sea-surface temperature 12

 Ocean heat content 12

 Sea level 13

 Ocean acidification 13

Extreme events 15

Tropical cyclones – Overview 18

Marine heatwaves 19

Major climate drivers 20

El Niño–Southern Oscillation 20

Indian Ocean Dipole 20

Madden–Julian Oscillation 20

Climate-related impacts and risks 21

Operational marine heatwave prediction services supporting preparedness in Australia and the South-West Pacific 21

Tropical Cyclone Senyar in Indonesia and Malaysia – Accelerated and coordinated action pays off 24

Datasets and methods 27

Contributors 28

Endnotes 29